






HUHniUHt! 






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Class _HL2.:ki 

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COPSRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



FARM 
DAIRYING 



A Treatise of Dairy Cattle, Their Feeding and Care 

and the Handhng and Disposition of Dairy 

Produce on the Farm. 



By 

C. LARSEN, M. S. A. 

Professor of Dairy Husbandry and Director of Extension. Author 

of "Laboratory Exercises in Earm Dairying," co-author of 

''Dairy Technology" and "Principles and Practice 

of Buttermaking." South Dakota State 

College, Brookings, S. D. 



ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

NEW YORK 

1919 






Cop'iTight 1919 by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

AH Rights Reserved 



utu '3 Id 13 



Printed in U. S. A. 









Co 

Cfjarles; Jf . Curtis?, 

Bean anb director, IJotoa ^tate College 

Mv Ceacfjer, ^bbigor, Co=b)orfeer anb Jf rienb 

Kf^ii poofe isi JBebicateb 



PREFACE 



IN THIS BOOK, treating of farm dairying, the author 
has endeavored to present the different phases of the 
subject in logical sequence. Much study has been given 
to dividing and systematizing the subject matter and to place 
the information in as good pedagogical form as possi1)le. 

These essentials of farm dairying are the results of 
many years of practical experience on dairy farms, results 
of study and observations made in the United States and 
in leading European dairy centers, results obtained from 
teaching and experimenting at the college with which the 
author has been connected, and results gathered from 
leading authorities in this country. 

I cannot express too much appreciation to my co-workers 
for their help, and to the various college and experiment 
station authorities for having supplied the opportunities 
for securing this valuable information. 

Though this book is published after the close of the war, 
it contains much information from pre-war conditions. 
The cost of feed and labor is much higher now than before 
the war. The present high scale of prices is not sure to 
continue, so the author believes that the pre-war data as 
to prices is more serviceable than if attempts were made to 
change so as to conform with present and maybe tempo- 
rary high plane of prices. 

The author has made it a point to discuss this subject 
of farm dairying in such a way as to make the book valu- 
able to the practical dairy farmer, as a text for students, 
and as a convenient reference to anyone interested in the 
important subject of farm dairying. It is hoped the book 
will fill a need and give a real service in improving and 
encouraging the dairy industry. 

C. LARSEN. 

South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
Brookings, South Dakota, July 12, 191D. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 



I. Chief Purposes of Dairy Farming ... 1 

1. Statistics of dairy industry in United States. 

2. Utilizing field crops for human foods. 

3. Utilizing labor profitably. 

4. Obtaining sure and quick returns. 
6. Utilizing rough lands. 

6. Retaining and increasing richness of land. 

7. Reducing the marketing expense of field crops. 

8. Profits from power of reproduction. 

CHAPTER n 

I. The Dairy Cow 20 

1. Desirable form of a good dairy cow. 

2. Ability to consume and digest feed. 

3. Ability to change feeds into dairy products. 
a Large udder capacity. 

b Blood circulation. 
c Milk mirror. 

4. Poise of dairy cow. 

5. Ability to maintain life and health, 

6. General form, 

7. Score card for dairy cow. 

8. Diagram naming parts of cow. 

CHAPTER III 

L Breeds of Dairy Cattle . , , , . 35 

1. Development of breeds. 

2. Breeds of dairy cattle. 
a Ayrshire. 

b Guernsey. 

c Jersey. 

d Holstein-Friesian. 

3. Summary of leading dairy breeds. 

4. Less common dairy breeds. 
a Brown Swiss. 

b Dutch Belted. 

yU 



VIU CONTENTS 

c Red Poll. 

d Devon. 

e Shorthorn. 

/ French-Canadian, Dexter and Kerry. 

5. Table of number of registered cattle in United States. 

6. Table of composition of milk from different breeds. 

CHAPTER IV 

L Value of Individuals in a Dairy Herd , , 62 

1. Economic value. 

a Ability to convert feed into milk. 

b Value of calf. 

c Value of manure. 

d Value of feeds consumed. 

e Cost of labor. 

/ Beef value of cow, 

g Interest and depreciation. 

h General expenses. 

i Service fee. 

2. Esthetic value. 

3. Outline for studying cost of milk production. 

CHAPTER V 

I. Determining the Production of Each Cow in the 

Herd 81 

1. Appearance of cow. 

a Form indicating production. 

2. Weighing and testing the milk, 
a Manner of obtaining records. 
h Composite samples. 

c Testing milk by Babcock method. 

d Cow testing associations. 

e Value of dairy herd records. 

/ Table of advanced registry requirements. 

CHAPTER VI 

I. Increasing Production of Dairy Herd . . 102 

1. Improvement of present dairy herd. 
a Cull poor cows. 

b Good feed and care. 

c Good management. 

d Fall freshening of cows. 

2. Improvement of future dairy herd. 



CONTENTS IX 



a Purchasing of good cows. 

b Using a good dairy sire. 

c Value of good dairy sire. 

d Paternal ancestors. 

e Inbreeding. 

/ Keep herd sire separate from herd. 

g Handling of cross sire. 

h Do not change breeds. 

i Bull associations. 

y Value of pedigree. 

k Maternal ancestors. 



CHAPTER VII 



I. Raising the Dairy Cow 134 

1. Selecting right parents. 

2. Feed and care of mother during pre-natal period. 
a Effects of surroundings of cow on calf. 

3. Feed and care of calf. 

a Care of calf when first born. 
b Place in which to keep calves, 
c Teach calf to eat grain. 
d Amount of milk to feed. 
e Measuring growth of calves. 
/ Changing to skimmilk. 

g Composition of whole milk, skimmilk and whey. 
h Substitutes for milk. 
i Calf feeders. 
/ Diarrhea in calves. 
k Factors affecting size of cow. 
/ Table giving birth weight of calves. 
m Large cows vs. small cows. 



CHAPTER Vni 

I. Feeding the Dairy Herd a Balanced Ration . 157 

1. Composition of feeds. 

2. Minerals in a cow's ration. 

3. Salt for dairy cows. 

4. Feed for milk production. 

5. Feed for body maintenance. 

6. Classification of feeds. 

7. Calculation of balanced ration. 

8. Feeding standards and their uses. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IX 

I. Feeding the Dairy Herd a Succulent Ration . 171 

1. Pasture grasses for cows. 

2. Soiling crops. 

3. Roots for dairy cows. 

4. Mashes for dairy cows. 

5. Silage for the dairy herd. 
a Advantages of silage. 

b Fining the silo. 

c Composition of corn In different stages. 

d Sealing the silo. 

c Silage fermentation. 

/ Feeding silage. 

6. Kinds of silos. 

7. Water for the dairy cow, 

CHAPTER X . 

I. Amount to Feed the Dairy Herd . , . 206 

1. Amount of rough feed. 

2. Amount of concentrates to feed. 

3. Grinding feed. 

4. Variety of feeds important. 

5. Calculating cost of ration. 

6. Feeding for maximum production. 

CHAPTER XI 

I. Milking the Dairy Cow 218 

1. Condition of cow. 

a Structure of cow's udder. 

b Clean and healthy cows. 

c Keep cow's teats in good condition. 

d Swollen udders. 

2. Condition of milker. 

a Clean and healthful milker. 
b Manner of procedure in milking. 
c Dry hand vs. wet hand milking. 
d Milking the cow clean. 

3. Condition of utensils. 

a Clean and sanitary utensils. 

4. Handling kicking cows. 

5. Handling sucking cows. 

6. Resting period for cows. 

7. Lengthening of milking period. 

8. Milk fever. 

9. Handling of cow during freshening period. 



CONTENTS Xi 

CHAPTER XII 

I. Methods of Milking 236 

I. Hand Milking. 
II. Machine Milking. 

1. Chief parts of milking machine. 

2. Cost of operation. 

3. Breaking cows to milking machine. 

4. Difference in cows for milking machine, 

5. Cows releasing milk slowly. 

6. Start machine in early part of lactation period. 

7. Symmetrical and well shaped udders important. 

8. Select and breed right cows. 

9. Operator should understand milk elaboration. 

10. Fit milking machine to cow. 

11. Milking machine surroundings not too cold. 

12. Cow giving down milk before attachment is made. 

13. Keeping milking machine sanitary. 

14. Watch closely for abnormal milk. 

III. Kinds of milking machines. 

1. Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy. 

2. Calfway. 

3. Empire. 

4. Perfection, 

5. Sharpies. 

6. Waterloo Boy. 

7. Hinman. 

8. Disbrow, 

9. Mehring. 
10. Universal. 



CHAPTER XIII 

I. Handling and Marketing Milk for Human Food 264 

1. Composition of normal milk. 

2. Bacteria in milk. 

3. Direct consumption of milk. 

a Healthful cows and sanitary surroundings, 
b Cooling and aerating milk. 
c Ice on the dairy farm, 



Xll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIV 

I. Handling Milk for Dairy Products on the Farm 273 

1. Making butter on the farm. 

o Skim cream of proper richness. 

b Keep separator in proper condition. 

c Churn fresh cream. 

d Churning temperature. 

e Composition of butter. 

/ Coloring the butter. 

g Washing the butter. 

// Salting the butter. 

i Working the butter. 

y Packing and marketing. 

k Difficult churning. 

2. Marketing cream to be made into butter at factory. 

1. Local creamery. 

2. Cream buying station. 

3. Direct shipment of cream. 

3. Making cheese on the farm, 

1. Coagulate with rennet. 

2. Cutting the curd. 

3. Heating the curd. 

4. Preparing the cheese for press. 

5. Pressing the cheese. 

6. Curing the cheese. 

4. Making soft cheeses on the farm. 

1. Cottage cheese. 

2. Neufchatel cheese. 

3. Pimento cheese. 

4. Cream cheese. 

5. Club cheese. 

5. Manner of disposal affects income. 



APPENDIX 

Appendix 304 

1. Armsby's tables of requirements for production and 
body maintenance. 

Also table of dry matter, protein and net energy 
requirements. 

2. Haecker's tables of requirements for milk produc- 
tion, food maintenance and nutrients in a pound 
of feeding stuffs. 

3. Tables of organic and mineral analysis of foods. 



CHAPTER I 
CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 

The purposes for which dairy farming is practiced vary 
according to the conditions and natural surroundings, to the 
degree of intensity, the extent to which it is followed, 
and the inclination and character of the dairyman. There 
are some who are engaged in dairy farming without having 
any special purpose in view. It is invariably the aimless 
dairy farmer who has proven a partial failure. 

When properly practiced, dairy farming is full of merits, 
and it is conducive to good economic results and to home 
building. In spite of many misconceptions, wrong prac- 
tices, and consequently, only partial results, the dairy busi- 
ness has made good returns, and has been constantly 
increasing in extent and in popularity. 

The following table gives some idea of the extent to 
which dairy farming is practiced in the United States :* 

No. of Dairy Cows Value per Head Aggregate Value 
U. S. Census, 1910 20,625,000 $35.29 $ 727,802,000 

U. S. Census, 1914 20,737,000 53.94 1,118,487,000 

The annual value of the dairy products in the United 
States is about as follows : 

Butter, 1,619,415,263 lbs. (^ $0.35 $566,795,342 

Cheese, 320,532,181 lbs. @ $0.25 80.133,145 

Condensed milk 11,888,792 

Cream sold 4,547,5.36 

Milk sold 217.512,586 

Milk fed to calves 39,000,000 

By-products 41.049,226 

Twenty million calves 100,000,000 

Total value of dairy cow products $l,OnO,926,527 

The chief purposes of dairy farming in the United States 
may be classified as follows : 

♦Bulletin No. 177, B. C. E., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

1 



2 LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 

1. To Utilize field crops economically and to transform 
them into the maximum of animal products to be used for 
human foods and for human comforts. 

2. To utilize labor profitably, especially during the slack 
seasons. 

3. To reduce marketing expenses of field crops by re- 
ducing their bulk and weight. 

4. To earn a sure income and obtain quick returns. 

5. To make economical use of rough and otherwise waste 
land. 

6. To obtain profits from the cow's power of reproduc- 
tion. 

Utilizing field crops for human foods. — Too often the 
question of utilizing the field crops does not receive the 
consideration which it deserves. A fundamental aim of 
human efforts is to produce human foods and human com- 
forts. Many of the field crops, especially the roughage, 
cannot be used directly for human foods nor for human 
comforts. 

To produce and harvest crops is one phase of farming. 
To utilize and market these crops in the most economical 
manner is another. Both are important and inter-de- 
pendent. It is said that the American farmer produces 
more new wealth per capita than any other farmer. It is 
generally conceded that the American farmer does not 
market his field crops so economically as do farmers of 
other countries. It is estimated that the American farmer 
obtains on an average about fifty percent of what the con- 
sumers have to pay for the articles produced on the farm. 
According to the best data obtainable, the Danish farmer, 
who probably employs the most efficient system of market- 
ing in the world, secures about ninety percent of what the 
consumers pay for the farm products. The Danish farmer 
markets practically all of his field crops through the dairy 
cow and through the hog and the chicken. 

Some farmers market the bulk of their crops by hauling 
them directly to market ; others by having the horse trans- 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 3 

form them into horse flesh ; others by having the sheep 
transform them into wool and mutton ; others have the hog 
transform them into pork and lard. Some again prefer to 
have the steer change the field crops into beef, and others 
have the dairy cow convert them into milk and butter fat. 
Some practice a combination of all, emphasizing one or 
more of these methods. 

Under the widely different conditions existing in differ- 
ent localities, each of the above-mentioned methods of mar- 
keting field crops has its advantages and its disadvantages. 
The Central West farmer prefers to practice a combination 
of these methods. However, the profits accruing may be 
increased by carefully studying various methods and 
problems. 




FIG. 



1 — The herdsman's house and dairy bam at the South Dakota 

State College. 



The right dairy cow, fed and cared for properly, will pro- 
duce more healthful digestible human food from a given 
amount of field crops than will any other farm animal. 
This is a strong statement, but according to experimental 
results and demonstrations, it is amply substantiated. The 
following figures are given with the view of showing the 
comparative economy of the different farm animals as 
means of marketing the different field crops. 



4 LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 

A reasonably good dairy cow, producing 40 pounds of 
four percent milk per day, will consume about 1 1 pounds of 
grain and 20 pounds of clover hay, or its equivalent in a 
mixed and properly balanced ration. The 40 pounds of 
milk contain the following amount of solids or dry matter, 
of which practically all is digestible. 

40 X .04 = 1.6 pounds of butter fat. 

40 X -035 = 1.4 pounds of protein (casein and albumen). 

40 X -05 = 3.0 pounds of milk sugar. 

40 X .007 = 0.3 pounds of ash. 

5.3 pounds dry matter produced daily from above ration. 

According to experiments, a little more than 96 percent 
of the milk proteins are digestible, and a trifle less than 96 
percent of the carbohydrates of the milk sugar are digest- 
ible, and probably all of the butter fat is digestible. This 
means that 97 percent, or 5.14 pounds of dry matter of the 
daily milk produced by the dairy cow are digestible. 

The ration fed to the cow contained about 9.9 pounds of 
dry matter in grain and about 18 pounds of dry matter in 
the hay. About 80 percent of the 9.9 pounds of dry mat- 
ter in the grain, or 7.9 pounds, are digestible, and about 43 
percent of the 18 pounds of dry matter in the clover hay, or 
77 pounds, are digestible. 

This dairy cow then consumes about 15.6 pounds of 
digestible dry matter, and recovers from it in the milk 5.14 
pounds of digestible milk solids. That is, the dairy cow- 
recovers about 33 percent of the digestible dry matter eaten, 
as digestible milk solids for human foods. 

The hog, while not capable of recovering so large a per- 
centage of the consumed feed solids for human food as is 
the dairy cow, ranks as one of the most economical animals. 
This is especially true when hogs are kept in connection with 
the dairy business. The by-products from the dairy, such 
as skim milk, buttermilk, and whey, when fed in connection 
with grain, according to various investigators, give the 
most economical gains. Henry of the Wisconsin station 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 5 

found that on such a ration, properly proportioned, the 
hog gains one pound of Hve weight from three pounds of 
digestible dry matter. 

According to Atwater, about 58 percent of the cured 
pork is digestible fat, and about 8.1 percent is digestible pro- 
tein. There would then be about fifty-eight hundredths of a 
pound of fat and eight hundredths of a pound of protein, or 
a total of sixty-six hundredths of a pound of digestible dry 




FIG. 2 — The value of skim milk and buttermilk per 100 pounds 
feeding is equal to five times the market price of hogs. 



for hog 



matter recovered by the hog from the three pounds of 
digestible dry matter consumed. This equals 22 percent. 

The third common animal extensively used for trans- 
forming field crops into animal products is the steer. 
According to various investigators, a thousand-pound steer 
in the fattening lot consumes daily about 16 pounds of 
grain and eight pounds of hay, or its equivalent. About 90 
percent of each of these feeds is dry matter, or 14.4 pounds 
in the grain and 7.2 pounds in the hay. About 80 percent 



6 LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 

of the dry matter in the grain, or 11.52 pounds, is digestible 
matter, and about 43 percent of the dry matter in the hay, 
or 3.1 pounds. This makes a total of 14.6 pounds of digest- 
ible dry matter consumed daily by the steer having the 
above-mentioned weight. Results of several experiments 
show that if a thousand-pound steer gains two pounds of 
live weight per day, he is doing well. Atwater also found 
that about 14.5 percent of beef is digestible fat and about 
16 percent is digestible protein. The above-mentioned gain 
contains three-tenths of a pound of digestible fat, and about 
thirty-two hundredths of a pound of digestible protein. This 
makes a total of sixty-two hundredths of a pound of digestible 
dry matter recovered by the steer from 14.6 pounds of 
digestible dry matter consumed. That is, he recovers about 
4.2 percent for human food. 

Then summarizing the comparative ability of each of 
these three common farm animals to recover human foods 
from the various field crops, we have the following: 

The dairy cow recovers about 33 percent. 
The hog recovers about 22 percent. 
The steer recovers about 4.2 percent. 

These results may range a little high for all of the above 
animals, as the data have been obtained from work per- 
formed at the difi^erent experiment stations. Under these 
conditions, the animals undoubtedly receive better care than 
is customary under average farm conditions. In addition, 
the animals used were perhaps of better quality than used 
under average farm conditions. However, great care has 
been taken to keep the data comparatively correct. From 
the above discussions, it will be noticed that there is a con- 
siderable waste of dry matter attended with having the field 
crops pass the roundabout way through the animal's body 
for human food. As population grows denser, the tendency 
will be to utilize as much of the concentrates, or grain, as 
can be used for human food directly, and to use the most 
profitable farm animals. 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING "/ 

Roughages, such as corn fodder, hay, and straw, cannot 
directly be used as foods for people. To serve as such, they 
must be converted into animal products. Here the dairy 
cow excels. The hog. generally speaking, requires his food 
principally in the form of concentrates. The fattening steer 
needs a larger percentage of nutrients in the form of con- 
centrates than does the dairy cow. Approximately speak- 
ing, the fattening steer eats two pounds of grain to one 
pound of hay, while the dairy cow reverses this ration to 
one pound of grain to two pounds of hay, or the equivalent 
in the form of other roughages. 

The dairy cow has survived the most intensive farm con- 
ditions in the world. Years ago. very little was known 
about the chemistry of field crops and animal bodies, and 
therefore no calculations such as those made above could be 
made. Through actual practice and general observations, 
the farmers learned that the dairy cow was the most 
economical transformer of field crops. Where farms are 
small, land expensive, prices of feed high, and the popula- 
tion dense, as is the case in the best agricultural districts of 
Europe and the United States, there the dairy cow is used 
largely for the production of human foods and for human 
comforts, from field crops. 

Utilizing labor profitably. — The responsibility of eco- 
nomically producing and marketing the world's food supply 
rests largely with the farmers. They stand at the source 
of all foods. They co-operate with the natural resources 
and with the elements to produce human food. Farm labor 
is an important item in producing the world's food supply. 

In the temperate zone, especially in the central and cen- 
tral northwest United States, the crop-growing seasons are 
long enough to produce only one field crop each year. Con- 
sequently, there are about six months each year which con- 
stitute the growing season, and about six months when no 
crops can be grown. To produce new wealth only during 
half of each year is not good farm economics. In the 
central northwest, labor is employed on the farm, especially 



8 



larsen's farm dairying 



on those where live stock Is not kept, at the rate of about 
one man in the winter and two in the summer — in some 
instances, three. This means that at least one able-bodied 
man on each farm each fall is turned from a field of pro- 
duction of new wealth into a field of non-production of new 
wealth. 

By practicing dairy farming to a greater extent, much of 
this labor could be economically utilized during the slack 
seasons. Our farms cculd be made factories for the con- 
tinuous production of new wealth. The crops could be 




FIG. 3 — A comfortable and convenient place for winter dairying. 



and during the winter, labor 



produced during the summer ; 
and the dairy cow could profitably transform these field 
crops mto concentrated expensive food products without 
removing the fertility of the land. 

The time of the year for the dairy work can be regulated. 
Not so with any of the field crops. The time of freshen- 
ing of a cow is within reasonable control of the owner. For 
the average dairy farmer the fall-freshening cow is the most 
profitable. The winter affords the most favorable condi- 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAlRVlx\C. 9 

tions for the farmer to get the hest and most work out of 
the dairy cow. llie labor is cheaper and more profitable. 
The prices of dairy products are about a third higher. The 
cow gives more milk during the year, and the fall calves are 
easier to raise. 

In addition, the dairy cow affords opportunities for the 
various members of the family to partake in the work on the 
farm. The work in the barn and the dairy is not heavy 
work. It is work which requires attention and intelligence 
— two important characteristics which we wish to stamp 
upon every young person's life. So the purpose of the 
dairy cow in this connection is not only to use labor in a 
profitable manner, but to aid and develop industrious, 
attentive young people of regular habits. 

The dairy cow has repeatedly demonstrated her ability to 
make large returns for the labor exerted and for food con- 
sumed. The dairy industry, though practiced only as a side 
issue in many places, constitutes one of the principal re- 
sources for taking care of the constant increase in the rural 
population, and provides for this increase a profitable em- 
ployment. By practicing the proper system of dairy farm- 
ing, two men can obtain profitable employment on a farm 
where formerly, under a system of grain farming, one man 
did the work. Stating it in another way, by proper dairy 
farming, eighty acres can be made to yield as much profit 
as will a 160-acre farm under the old system of grain 
farming. 

Obtaining sure and quick returns. — As a safe invest- 
ment, the dairy cow excels. The risk of growing a herd of 
dairy cows is less than that involved in handling other kinds 
of live stock. While there are diseases, and especially con- 
tagious diseases, affecting dairy herds, the attentive dairy- 
man keeps the herd and surroundings in such a condition 
as to prevent and check any great losses from such sources. 
The dairyman keeps in close touch with every individual 
cow of the herd. The cows are taken into the barn, fed 
and milked twice a dav. If anv one member of the herd 



10 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



shows symptoms of sickness, such as lack of appetite, or a 
lessened flow of milk, she can be attended to at once. It is 
different with other classes of animals allowed to run, per- 
haps for months, without receiving frequent attention. 

The food which the dairy cow receives is transformed 
into a separate product, removed from the cow twice every 
day. If anything should happen to the dairy cow, no 
accumulated lot of products representing several months 
of labor and feeding would be lost. Only the machinery is 
lost. With almost any other animal, the owner sustains a 

loss of not only the 
machinery used for 
t r a n s f o rming the 
feed, but also the 
accrued products, 
from months and 
even years. 

The products 
from the dairy cow 
can be realized upon 
at once. In fact, 
the cow products 
are of such a perish- 
able nature that it is 
almost necessary to 
market them at 
once. This quick 
transformation of 
the feed by the 
dairy cow, and the 
ready Cash sales of the dairy products, reduce the risk of 
live stock farming to a minimum and supply the dairyman 
with cash. 

The dairy cow may also be considered a safety in crop 
production. While it is not commendable to anticipate a 
crop failure, the wise farmer does not rely entirely upon the 
field crops for his income. Late spring, wet or dry seasons, 




FIG. 4 — Com on unmanured ground ; yield 7 
tons per acre. These two fields of com were 
grown on the same quarter section of land. 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 



11 



hailstorms, injurious insects, and early frost are likely to 
hinder the production of a mature field crop. The dairy- 
man who, for instance, has a silo can utilize an immature 
corn crop and have splendid feed for a dairy herd, while 
otherwise it would be difficult, if not impossible, tc realize 
on such a corn crop. 

Utilizing rough lands. — In some states and in some 
communities there 
is much rough and 
partially waste land 
which cannot well 
be tilled. Such land 
may be seeded to 
permanent t a m e 
pasture, and the 
maximum returns 
obtained by grazing 
a herd of good dairy 
cows upon it. This 
is especially true 
where the land is in- 
clined to be low and 
woody. 

Although ex- 
tremely swampy 
land is frequently 
used for dairy cow 
pasture, the writer 
would not advocate 
such use. Such land fi-. 5_coi 
may serve for sup- 
plying feed for young stock, but for cows giving milk low 
land pasture of this kind grows grass that is coarse and not 
very appetizing. The cows should not wade around in 
swampy pastures, as their udders and teats are likely to 
become dirty. In the spring, during the wet season, it may 
be even difficult for the dairy cow to find a dry place on 



1 


M 


>ll^HP''^^'^'' 





on manure-I ground ; yield 14 
tons per acre. 



12 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



which to lie down. In such low land, mosquitoes and other 
insects are usually very troublesome, especially during the 
middle of the summer. Outside of extremely low, swampy 
ground, however, the dairy cow can economically utilize 
rough land that cannot w^ell be farmed. 

Retaining and increasing richness of land. — Among the 
various phases of agriculture, dairy farming stands un- 
rivaled as the greatest upbuilder of the soil. This is evi- 
denced in every dairy community. 

The dairy farmer who transforms all of his feed into 
dairy products removes very little fertility from his farm. 
This is shown by the following table, compiled by Armsby : 





M 


anurial Value of Farm Products 








Pounds per ton 


Value per ton 




Nitrogen 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


Potash 


Nitrogen 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


Potash 


Total 


Meadow hay 
Clover hay. . . 

Potatoes 

Wheat bran . 
Linseed meal 
Cotton- 
seed meal . . . 

Wheat 

Oats 


20.42 

40.16 

7.01 

49.15 

105.12 

135.65 
37.53 
36.42 
33.06 
39.65 
10.20 
90.60 
2.50 
53.20 
7.^2 


8.20 
11.20 

3.20 
54.60 
32.20 

56.20 
15.80 
12.40 
11.80 
15.40 

3.40 

23.00 

.76 

37.20 

2.34 


26.40 
36.60 
11.40 
28.60 
24.80 

29.20 
10.60 
8.80 
7.40 
9.00 
3.00 
5.00 
.28 
3.40 
3.06 


3.47 
6.83 
1.19 

8.35 
17.87 

23.06 
6.38 
6.21 
5.62 
6.74 
1.73 

15.40 

.37 

9.04 

1.13 


.57 

.78 

.22 

3.82 

2.25 

3.93 
1.11 

.87 

.83 
1.08 

.24 
1.61 

.08 
2.60 

.14 


1.06 
1.46 

.46 
1.14 

.99 

1.17 
.42 
.35 
.30 
.36 
.12 
.20 
.05 
.14 
.14 


5.10 

9.07 

1.87 

13.31 

21.11 

28.16 
7.91 
7.43 


Corn 


6 75 


Barley 

Milk 


8.18 
2 09 


Cheese 

Butter* 

Live cattle . . 
Cream* 


17.21 

.50 

11.78 

1.41 



*Calculated from South Dakota Station analyses. 



The manurial value of $1000 worth of farm products 
fluctuates with the market prices. For this reason, the price 
is given in the following table, and represents about the 
current price at the time of w^riting. 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM IXMRVING 



13 



The manurial value of $1000 worth of each of the farm 

products, calculated from the above table, is as follows: 

Manurial Vc'lue of $1000 worth of clover hay @ $9 per ton $1007 

" " " " " cottonseed meal @ $.'jO per ton IJOt 

" " " " " wheat bran @ $20 per ton 665 

" " " " " meadow hay ([v $S per ton 640 

'* " " " '* linseed meal @ $40 per ton 552 

" " " " oats ((V $20 per ton 371 

" " " " corn @ $20 per ton 337 

" " " " barley @ $25 per ton 327 

" wheat (rt $25 per ton 316 

" live cattle @ $100 per ton 118 

" " " potatoes ((( $20 per ton 93 

" milk @ $25 per ton 83 

" " " " cheese (^v $300 per ton 57 

" " *' " " cream @ $150 per ton 9.4 

" '* " " butter @ $500 per ton .7 

According to Cornell station, the different farm animals 
per thousand pounds live weight produce the following 
amount of manure, daily, having the composition shown in 
the following- table : 





Amount and Composition of Manure 










Analysis 




Amount 
per day 


% 
water 


Nitrogen 


Phos- _ 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Value 
per ton 


Sheep 

Calves 

Hogs 

Cows 

Horses 


34.1 
67.8 
83.6 
74.1 
4S.8 


59.52 
77.73 
74.13 
75.25 
4<^69 


.768 
.497 
.840 
.426 
.490 


.391 
.172 
.390 
.290 
.260 


.591 
.532 
.320 
.440 
.480 


3.30 
2.18 
3.29 
2.02 
2.21 



The cow, then, produces about 13.5 tons of manure per 
year, which is ordinarily worth about $2 per ton, or $27 
(value of nitrogen at 15 cents; phosphoric acid, 6 cents; 
potash at 4j4 cents per pound). The above amount in- 
cludes sufificient litter to keep the cow reasonably clean. 
According to the Pennsylvania experiments, about 37 per- 
cent of the above-mentioned manure voided is liquid, and 
the remainder, or 63 percent, is dung. 

The question of conserving the soil fertility cannot be too 
strongly emphasized. The richness of the soil is a natural 



14 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



heritage. Those who own the land do not own its natural 
plant food supply. They are simply trustees, and it is their 
duty to retain and even increase the richness of the land. 

The west and central west should profit by the mistakes 
made in some of the older states. In the eastern part of 
the United States, and in some parts of the south, artificial 
fertilizers are used extensively. About $100,000,000 worth 
of artificial fertilizers is used annually in the United States. 




FIG. 6— Haulin}? liquid manure from a concrete liquid manure cistern. 
(Courte?y Portland Cement Co.) 

Artificial fertilizers may serve as stimulants for a short 
time, but they are expensive, and unless used in large quanti- 
ties, are not effective. 

By practicing dairy farming, and by hauling manure on 
the land, the productivity of the soil can be retained, be- 
cause so little plant food is removed from the farm. 

The richness of the land can even be increased, and usu- 
ally is. The dairyman commonly buys some, concentrated 
feedstuffs, rich in protein, such as bran, linseed meal, 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 



15 



gluten feeds, cottonseed meal, and other mill and brewery 
by-products. These, in addition to the feeds raised on the 
farm, are fed to the cows, and the manure returned to the 
land. Considering also that the dairyman usually tills his 
soil well, and that plant food elements are constantly set 
free, dairy farming not only maintains, but increases the 
productiveness of the land. 

This is evidenced in practically all of the dairy localities 
in the United States, at least all that the writer has visited. 




FIG. 7 — Showing litter trrck end carrier. (Courtesy Portland Cement Co.) 

The European countries practicing dairy farming inten- 
sively are prosperous, even in the face of high taxes, high 
rent, high prices of feed, and high value of land. Denmark 
was formerly a land of poverty. Since the dairy business 
gained a foothold, the masses are prosperous and well-to-do. 
Under the present system of dairy farming the yield from 
each acre has been doubled in about twenty years. The 
dairy industry in Denmark did not begin to develop until 
about 1883, 



16 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



In the sections where the rainfall is low this question 
of retaining the soil fertility by dairy farming is of special 
importance. Dr. Widtsoe of the Utah station found that 
corn grown on well-manured land required 612 pounds of 
water to produce one pound of dry matter, while corn grown 
on unmanured land required 908 pounds of w^ater to pro- 
duce one pound of dry matter. 

Reducing the marketing expense of field crops. — The 
average field crops, such as hay, straw, and grain, arebulky 
and heavy and expensive to market. Especially is this 
true for those wdio live in the central west and northwest 
states at long distances from central markets, and also for 
those whose farms are located a long distance from railroad 
stations. Many farmers are located from six to 15 miles 




J. ^o. 8- — Hauling the manure from the bam onto the field daily is probably 
the best method of handling manure on the dairy farm. 

from a shipping point. Such farmers cannot load and un- 
load and make more than one trip each day. To haul a 
load of hay or other feed to a railroad station will then cost 
the value of a day's wages, of team and man. 

When this feed is loaded on the car at the local station, 
then there is the expense of transportation to the central 
market. From this territory to the Chicago market, the 
average cost of transportation per 100 pounds is about 20 
cents, or about $4 per ton. 

During the winter months the dairy cow will eat about 
three tons of hay and one ton of grain. To get this feed 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 17 

from the farm to the Chicago market will cost about as 
follows : 

Hauling from farm to shipping point three loads of hay @ $4 $12 

Hauling from farm to shipping point one load of grain (fv $t 4 

Transportation or freight on four tons of feed from shipping 
point to central market @ $4 IG 

Total cost of marketing feed for one cow every year ^',12 

This cost has been calculated on the basis of carload 
rates, and does not consider elevator charges, nor commis- 
sion for handling and selling at local and central market 
place. 

One purpose of keeping the dairy cow is to reduce this 
marketing expense. A fairly good dairy cow should be 
able to change this feed into three hundred pounds of butter. 

Cost of hauling 300 pounds of butter from farm to shipping 
point at 1 cent $3.00 

Cost of transportation or freight on 300 pounds of hutter to 
central market at 50 cents per 100 pounds 1.50 

Total cost of marketing the butter $4.50 

The other products from the cow, namely, the skim milk, 
the calf and the manure, remain on the farm. 

A dairy cow thus reduces the cost of marketing field crops 
from $32 to $4.50, a difference of $27.50. If the man main- 
tains a herd of 15 cows, the total transportation expense 
saved annually is equal to $412. This saving will, of course, 
vary somewhat according to localities. The above figures 
have been cited to illustrate the point that dairy cows will 
reduce the cost of marketing field crops. 

This decrease in transportation charges is due chiefly to 
the fact that the dairy cow is especially well adapted to han- 
dling bulky field crops. The dairy cow can utilize a larger 
percent of the nutrients in the form of bulky and rough 
feeds than can any other farm animal. The three tons of 
hay and one ton of grain will occupy a space equal to about 
1300 cubic feet. This .much voliune the cow will change 



18 larsen's farm dairying 

into about 300 pounds of the most concentrated human food 
known. 

These figures cannot be accurate for all cases and for all 
conditions. However, they point with a great deal of sig- 
nificance to what the dairy cow is able to do in the way of 
changing bulky and weighty field crops into concentrated 
human fcods for which there is always a ready demand at 
high prices. 

One more factor should be considered in this connection. 
Some of the dairy products produced are consumed in the 
immediate locality, and do not need to be shipped at all. 
They are used as human foods in the immediate community 
where they are produced, while the field crops could not be 
thus utilized and therefore need to be transported to the big 
central markets if the farmer wishes to realize cash from 
them. 

Reproduction. — The above discussion has been confined 
chiefly to the production only, to the turning of labor and 
feeds into dairy products and money. Another very im- 
portant purpose for which dairy cows are kept is to repro- 
duce. The better the cow and the better the sire, the more 
valuable is this phase of the cow's work. This work of re- 
production is largely carried on at the same time that the 
cow performs the remainder of her functions. One case is 
on record where a calf sold for $106,000. In several in- 
stances, one calf has sold for as high as $10,000. This may 
be considered the maximum. The value of a cow's off- 
spring may be said to vary from $5 up. 

The common value set on a calf does not justly measure 
the value of a cow for reproduction. A calf has a certain 
intrinsic market value, but in addition to this, an individual 
of a large producing strain and of a family of good type, is 
a carrier of valuable hereditary characteristics. The dairy 
cow is a vehicle for carrying the combined characteristics 
of her ancestors. This work of reproducing dairy qualities 
is one which many dairymen overlook. These qualities 
cannot be seen, cannot be handled, yet they form one of the 



CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 19 

most valuable purposes for which we keep the dairy cow. 
This is especially true when the dairyman is trying to im- 
prove his herd. 

The informed, wide-awake dairy farmer highly values 
this particular work of the dairy cow. As soon as farmers 
in general realize the importance of this the improvement of 
dairy cattle will go forward with astounding rapidity. At 
the present time, one owner of a. dairy cow will concentrate 
this force of transmitting desirable characteristics, and an- 
other one working less intelligently will undo what has al- 
ready been accomplished. 

In some instances, cows are kept for the above chief pur- 
poses. In addition, many farmers value a cow for what 
she will bring after her dairy usefulness has ceased. Many 
farmers practice keeping large cows, and sell them before 
they are very old. Under such conditions, the value of the 
cow for the block is considerable. Probably such cows will 
net between $30 and $80 each. 



CHAPTER II 
THE DAIRY COW 

The dairy cow is the foundation of the dairy industry. 
Without her, there would be no dairying. Upon the kind 
of a dairy cow, to a very large extent, depends the amount 
of profit obtained by the dairy farmer. 

Strong statements have been made by breed enthusiasts 
relative to the merits and demerits of certain breeds. The 
writer's experience with all of the leading dairy breeds has 
taught him that it is not so much a question of what breed, 
as it is a question of individuality and of strain within a 
breed. There are many poor dairy cattle within any of the 
breeds. The person who obtains individuals in a family of 
large producers of Holstein cows will not want to part with 
them. On the other hand, if he obtains individuals that do 
not produce well, he naturally desires to make a change. It 
is similar with the Guernsey breed; it is similar with Ayr- 
shires ; and it is similar with Jerseys. The same thing holds 
true with cattle belonging to the other breeds. 

Desirable form of a good dairy cow. — There can be no 
question that there is a relation existing between the form 
of an animal and its functions. The chief work of the 
dairy cow is to change field crops into dairy products and a 
calf. This particular work the dairy cow has been per- 
forming for many generations and for many hundred years. 
As a result, the cow has acquired a form that closely relates 
to her functions. This particular form has become hered- 
itary. It has been thoroughly demonstrated that the ability 
to produce milk and butter fat by a cow is an hereditary 
characteristic, and that the form accompanying large pro- 
duction is also hereditary. 

This principle may be illustrated in the human family, for 
instance, with a blacksmith. His right arm is more heavily 

20 



THE DAIRY COW 21 

muscled and stronger than is the right arm of a person do- 
ing other forms of work. If this man's son is also a hlack- 
smith, his right arm will be more heavily muscled and 
stronger, and so on down the line of the descendants. Even- 
tually, it will not be necessary for these descendants to be 
blacksmiths in order to have strong right arms. It becomes 
an acquired hereditary characteristic. It is similar with 
dairy cows. They have been changing feeds into dairy 
products for so many generations, that the form that relates 
to milk production has become an acquired hereditary 
characteristic. It is this hereditary form which indicates 
large milk production and which we look for in picking a 
good dairy cow. At the present time this study of relation 
of form to function is by no means complete. 

The important points to be considered in judging a dairy 
cow may be classified under four main heads : 

1. Is she capable of consuming and digesting large quan- 
tities of feed, especially rough feeds, that is, has she a ca- 
pacious and efficient digestive system? 

2. Is she capable of converting these feeds into milk and 
butter fat economically, that is, has she capacious and effi- 
cient mammary organs, and the right dairy temperament? 

3. Is she capable of doing this work for a long time and 
retaining good health, that is, has she a strong constitution? 

4. Has she proper shape and synmietry? Under this 
heading is included breed, type, size, color, etc. 

Ability to Consume and Digest Feeds 

A cow's middle piece, or barrel, should have plenty of 
capacity for handling and digesting large quantities of 
rough feed. The barrel should be long, that is, the length 
from the hips to the shoulders should be great. It should 
also be deep, and wide. This does not mean that it should 
be wide near the top line. On the contrary, the cow's top 
line should be narrow. The ribs should gradually spread 
from the backbone in such a way as to give depth and 
width of body. A cow having large barrel capacity will 



22 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



have ribs that are wide and placed far apart. The length, 
depth, and width of the barrel should be of such propor- 
tions as to make that part of the cow's body appear sym- 
metrical. 

In this connection it is well to examine the muzzle or 
mouth of the cow. A peaked mouth does not indicate good 
feeding quality in a cow. The muzzle should be wide and 
of good size. This one point is probably of little impor- 
tance by itself, but when considered with the other qualities 
indicating large, efficient digestive capacity, it is a good 
indication. 




FIG. 9 — A cow long and wide of barrel, but lacks depth of body. This cow 
shows excellent capacity in front quarters. 

The loin of a cow should be wide and reasonably level. 
This adds strength to the back of the cow and indicates 
strong kidneys. A sloping and narrow loin gives a bad 
appearance to the cow. 

Capacity is not the only important thing in connection 
with the digestive system of the cow. She should also be 
an efficient user of feeds. The cow that can utilize the 
largest percentage of the consumed feeds or nutrients, and 
put it into the pail, is the most profitable. 

A cow having efficient digestion usually has a skin of 



THE DAIRY COW 



23 



good quality. The outside skin is a continuation of the 
Hning of the digestive tract. The Hning of the digestive 
tract contains the glands that secrete the pancreatic, gastric, 
and salivary juices. If the lining of the digestive tract is of 
good quality, more, and a better quality of digestive fluids 
are secreted. In connection with judging the efficiency of 
digestion, the quality of skin is of great importance. It 
should be velvety, loose, mellow, and of medium thickness. 
The covering of the skin should also be soft, short, and 
downy. Hairs that are coarse, long, and stiff are not in- 
dicative of efficient digestion. 




FIG. 10— xV c.r.v .!tM.-p an.l wide uf barrel, an.l ..howinir ^nod quality. 

Most good dairy cows also have an oily skin. Sometimes 
the secretion is yellow. In some breeds of cattle, especially 
the Guernsey, this color of the secretion is of considerable 
importance. It is generally considered that there is a rela- 
tion between the color of the skin secretion and the color 
of the milk. At any rate, a desirable skin should not be dry 
and scaly. The secretion should be copious and a yellow 
color is preferred. 



24 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Ability to Change Feeds Into Dairy Products 

Large udder capacity. — Large udder capacity is proba- 
bly the most important point in a dairy cow. The front 
udder should extend well forward under the abdomen. The 
hind udder should extend back and high up between two 
flat thighs. This will give the udder great length. The 
cow's udder should also be wide. This necessitates that the 
cow should be wide in the hind quarters and between the 




FIG. 11 — CoUe^e Belle Wayne 98497, bred and owned by South Dakota 
State College. This view was obtained when she produced 118 lbs. of 
milk per day. Weight 1975 Us. Official records: 

1 day, 126.7 lbs. of milk. 7 days, 824 lbs. of milk, 35.5 lbs. butter. 
30 days, 3338 lbs of milk, 146.6 lbs. butter. 

thighs. If a cow's udder is thus long and wide, there will 
be large udder area attaching to the cow's body. 

The cow's udder should be of good quality. It nuist not 
be fleshy and hard when empty. Immediately after milk- 
ing, the cow's udder should be soft, flabby and composed of 
quantities of loose mellow skin and tissue. 

The cow's udder should also be of good shape. It should 
have a wide and level underline, and svmmetrical and well- 



THE DAIRY COW 



25 



placed teats of reasonably good size. The cow's udder 
should not be pendulous in shape. The udder should be 
held snugly up against the body of the cow. A low, pendu- 
lous udder is common to some old cows. This shape of 
udder does not necessarily indicate much ability to produce 
milk. 

When a cow is not giving milk, it is more difficult to judge 
the udder capacity. 
In this case, one may 
carefully examine 
the amount of loose 
skin enveloping the 
mammary gland and 
the shape of the hind 
quarters. The cow 
should have a long 
rump. The distance 
from the hips to the 
pin bones should be 
relatively great. 
There is a co-relation 
existing between the 
length of a cow's 
rump and the length 
of a cow's udder. 
Similarly, there is a 
co-relation existing 
between the width of 
a cow's hind quarter and the width of a cow's udder. 

There is also a relation existing between the shape of a 
cow's hind quarter and the shape of her udder. If a cow is 
drooping behind, and the pin bones and tail setting are much 
lower than the hips, then the hind quarters of the cow's 
udder are much lower than the front quarters, and usually 
such a cow lacks In front udder development. The rump 
should not be depressed between hips and pin bones. The 
hind quarters of a dairy cow should be level, wide and long. 




FIG. 12--Col'egre BeVe Wayne, when not 
in milk. 



26 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Blood circulation. — The blood circulation of the dairy 
cow is an important matter to consider. It is not sufficient 
that the general blood circulation of the cow is good, but a 
large percentage of the blood must be directed towards the 
cow's udder. The blood carries the raw material from 
which the milk is manufactured. The mammary gland, 
located in the cow's udder, is the organ which constitutes 
the machinery that makes the mil 



is a large 



k. Unless ther 
supply of blood at the 
seat of milk manufacture, 
there can be no abun- 
dance of raw material 
from which the milk can 
be manufactured. 

The mammary veins, 
or milk veins, as they are 
often called, should be 
large. These milk veins 
are located on the under 
part of the cow's ab- 
domen, lying from the 
udder to the heart. They 
should be branching, es- 
pecially near the udder. 
Most large producing 
cows have crooked or 
tortuous milk veins. 
Likewise, they have long 
veins. Hence, when se- 
lecting a dairy cow, a 
person should look for 
long milk veins extending well towards the foreflank before 
they penetrate the abdominal wall, and for veins that are 
large, crooked, and branching. 

In this connection, one should remember that the size 
varies with age. A young cow does not have as large milk 
veins as an older cow. They will also vary according to 




FIG. 13- 



-A cow having: a narrow, rough 
and droopy rump. 



THE DAIRY COW 



27 



whether a cow is in milk or not. During the first portion 
of the lactation period, the milk veins are larger than 
towards the latter part, or when the cow is dry, or almost 
dry. 

At the end of the milk veins, or where they appear to end, 
towards the anterior part of the cow's hody, there are open- 
ings through the ahdominal wall. These are the openmgs 
through which the 
veins pass on their 
way towards the heart. 
These openings are 
called the milk wells. 
These milk wells 
should be large and 
they should be numer- 
ous. On a good dairy 
cow, there is usually 
one large milk well, 
and several small ones 
on each side. Where 
there are several small 
milk wells in connec- 
tion with the large 
ones, the milk vein has 
a corresponding num- 
ber of extensions. It 
can readily be seen 
that milk wells which 
are small and few in 
number do not permit 

a large flow of blood through them, even though the veins 
are large. Therefore, large milk veins do not mean so much 
as when both veins and milk wells are large. 

Experiments conducted at the Oregon station show that 
these exterior veins are not the only passages of the blood. 
These veins were tied or completely shut off, yet the cow 
continued to produce milk in almost normal quantity. Some 




I'lG. 14 — A cow having a wide, l^vel rump. 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



COWS may have the important veins on the inside of the 
body rather than where they may be seen. 

The milk mirror, or escutcheon, has also been associated 
with the blood circulation of a cow. By milk mirror is 
meant the lay of the hair on the inner side of the thighs of 
the cow. A ridge of hair extends from the upper hind part 
of the cow's thighs down well towards the hock, at which 
place it usually ends in a twirl. This ridge results from the 
lay of hair coming from the twist on the inner side of the 
thigh meeting the lay of the hair from the outside of the 

thigh. Most good 
dairy cows have a 
wade, long, and 
well-defined m i 1 k 
mirror. 

Just what rela- 
tion exists between 
milk production and 
the milk mirror is 
not k n o w n defi- 
nitely. Some claim 
that it is an indica- 
tion of the extra 
amount of blood 
that is supplied to 
the hind quarters of 
the cow. Most cows 
give more milk from the hind quarters than they do from 
the front quarters. Such cows usually have a good milk 
mirror or escutcheon. There are some good judges of 
dairy cows who refuse to recognize any definite relation 
existing between the milk mirror and the production of the 
cow. It is true that there are many good producing cows 
that do not show much milk mirror. 

This supposed relation of milk mirror to production was 
investigated and advocated by a Frenchman whose name 
was Guennon. His supposed discovery was carefully in- 




FTG. 15 — Showing good shape and quality of 
udder, and also excellent mammary vein de- 
velopment. (Courtesy U. S. Dairy Division.) 



THE DAIRY COW 29 

vestigated by the French government, and the committee 
having this in charge reported favorably. It is also stated 
that a committee of experts representing the state of 
Pennsylvania investigated this problem and also reported 
favorably. 

The writer can remember the time when it was difficult 
for a bull to receive a premium at the big dairy cattle shows 
in Denmark unless he had a prominent and well-defined 
escutcheon. There was less importance attached to the 
escutcheon of cows, but a dairy bull heading a herd and 
regarded of high standard should possess a good milk 
mirror. In connection with the other favorable qualities in- 
dicating large production, a wide, well-defined escutcheon 
is desirable. 

Poise or carriage. — A cow that has good poise and car- 
riage shows a healthful, bright, and lean appearance, when 
in milk and on good feed. Such a cow has large, bright, 
and prominent eyes. She has a refined feminine appear- 
ance. Such a cow has ears of good quality — ears that are 
well carried and even active. 

A cow with good poise has a wide forehead, not too wide 
in the poll. She is not coarse and heavy in the throat- 
latch and the jaw bone. She has a prominent open-jointed 
backbone that carries out straight at the tail setting. 

The forehead and backbone contain the brain and spinal 
cord respectively. These are the two chief parts of the 
nervous system. The wide forehead, with the other quali- 
ties mentioned above, indicates good brain capacity, and 
similarly a prominent backbone indicates a large spinal 
cord. Between each of the vertebrae the nerves radiate out 
to the various parts of the body. If the spinal column has 
an open-jointed appearance and the cow has good control 
over all of her movements, it indicates a free and certain 
flow of nervous energy to the various parts of the cow's 
body. 

There are some who think that a good dairy cow is very 
nervous, ready to suffer a nervous collapse at any slight 



30 larsen's farm dairying 

excitement. This is contrary to the writer's experience. 
The largest and best producing cows with which the writer 
has come in contact are the cows which show the least 
nervousness. They are cows that seem to imderstand the 
surroundings. They do not become excited over every little 
unusual thing that happens. 

Ability to Maintain Life and Health 

To continuously change feeds into dairy products and to 
raise a calf each year is hard work for a cow. In order to 
stand this year after year, a cow must have a strong con- 
stitution. 

The strength of the constitution is judged chiefly from 
the capacity of her front quarter. The thorax, or front 
quarter, contains two of the most vital organs of the cow, 
namely, the lungs and the heart. The lungs purify the 
blood, and the heart pumps it to the different parts of the 
body. Unless the cow has a large pair of lungs, and a 
strong, capacious heart, the work of digestion and milk 
secretion cannot be economically done. 

The dairy cow should have a deep chest. The chest 
should also have good width. This applies especially to the 
lower part of the front quarter. A cow that is very narrow, 
having the two front legs extend from the chest very close 
together, usually has not a very large chest capacity. A cow 
should also have a shoulder that is oblique. The shoulder 
that is straight up and down does not give much length to 
the front quarters, while if the shoulder slants back, the 
cow usually has good chest capacity, lengthwise. 

In addition^ a cow should have a full aiid large heart 
girth. Many cows are notably wxak in this place. Some 
cows are very depressed in the crops, or back of the 
shoulder near the top line. Some cows are also very 
depressed in the fore flank, or back of the fore leg near 
the underline. A contracted heart girth and a contracted 
chest are indications of a weak constitution. 



THE DAIRY COW 31 

A COW having large lung and heart capacity usually has a 
prominent windpipe, or trachea, and large nostrils. The 
nostrils and the windpipe serve as inlets for the fresh air. 
Unless these are large, the cow cannot take in large volumes 
of fresh air, nor expel large volunies of impure air from the 
lungs. These latter points should not be overlooked in 
judging a cow. 

A cow having a strong constitution usually has a large, 
prominent navel. The size of the navel is considered an 
indication of the manner in which the individual was fed 
during the prenatal period. The navel is the place where 
the umbilical cord was attached before the individual was 
born. To what extent the size of the navel and the umbili- 
cal cord are indications of how the individual was nourished 
before birth is a question, but considering the fact that most 
good dairy cows have a large navel, it is deemed of some 
importance. 

The general appearance of the cow should also be con- 
sidered. A dairy cow which has small, depressed, elongated 
eyes, and drooping cars, and a general sluggish expression 
is not as a rule a cow with a strong constitution. 

General Form 

There is an old saying that "a chain is no stronger than 
its weakest link." This applies to a dairy cow. There is 
no cow any stronger than her weakest part. We, therefore, 
should look for symmetry of form. A symmetrical form is 
also attractive and beautiful. There is no reason why 
beauty cannot be combined with utility. 

The various breed characteristics, such as size, color, etc., 
should be studied under this head. 

The judging of dairy cows cannot be said to have been 
entirely standardized. Gov. Hoard once said : "The inside 
of a cow is a dark place." The study already made shows 
that the chief points referred to above are desirable and 
indicative of large milk production. 

The extent to which such points as the kind of escutcheon 



32 



Name. 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 

Date 

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE 
Department of Dairy Husbandry 
Students' Score Card — Dairy Cow 



III. 



IV. 



SCORE OF POINTS 

ABILFT'Y TO CONSUME AND DIGEST FEEDS 
(capacious and efficient digestive organs) 20 points 
Chiefly indicated by: 

1. Deep, wide and medium long barrel, ribs broad and 
wide apart; broad, long, and not too sloping loins. . 

2. Large, wide mouth, not peaked 

3. Loose, mellow, medium thick skin, yellow secre- 
tion, hair soft and fine 

ABILITY TO CHANGE FEEDS INTO DAIRY 

PRODUCTS (dairy temperament) 50 points 
Chiefly indicated by: 

1. Udder capacity. 30 points 

(a) Front udder extending well forward and under 
abdomen 

(b) Hind udder extending back and high up 
between flat thighs 

(c) Udder not fleshy 

(d) Udder should be wide and level underneath and 
four symmetrically placed teats of good size. . . 

(e) Thighs should be flat and wide apart, giving a 
roomy twist _. • 

(f) Cow should be level over hips, rump and pin- 
bones, and have a long, wide, rump 

2. Blood circulation 10 points 

(a) Large, branching, crooked and long mammary 
veins 

(b) Large and numerous milk wells 

(c) Long, wide spreading and well-defined es- 
cutcheon, or milk mirror 

3. Poise 10 points 

(a) Wide forehead, not too heavy and coarse in 
throat-latch, jaw bone and neck 

(b) Lean, healthy, refined feminine appearance 
bricht and full eyes, well carried ears, and good 
body carriage 

(c) Prominent, straight, open-iointed. backbone, 
reasonably straight at tail setting, and nairow 
at the withers 

ABILITY TO MAINTAIN LIFE AND HEALTH 

(constitution) 15 points 
Chiefly indicated by: 

1. Deep and wide chest and spare shoulders... 

2. Large nostrils, prominent windpipe, giving large 
air inlet 

3. Full and laree heart girth, full in foreflank, full ir 
crops and back of shoulders. givii\g large heaii 
capacity 

4. Large navel 

GENERAL FORM and Breed Characteristics IS point.^ 
Chiefly indicated by: 

1. Size 

2. Color 

3. Symmetry 

Total 



SCORE 



Female 


Is 




p 


12 
1 






7 






7 






7 
2 






4 






2 






8 






6 
3 






1 






2 






4 






4 






6 






2 






6 

1 






6 

2 
7 






100 







THE DAIRY COW 33 

and crooked and long milk veins indicate large milk prodnc- 
tion is yet a question. Similarly, the extent to which the 
copiousness and color of secretion and skin, color of base 
of horns and hoofs, are indications of richness and color of 
milk, and whether or not richness can be judged, are yet 
questions. 

Idle judging of cows should not be done entirely from a 
standpoint of milk production. Beauty of form may be 
combined with utility. 

In Denmark, the following score card has been in use :* 

Form and size 15 points 

Quality and dairy temperament 12 

Milking qualities 12 " 

Pedigree 12 

(Detailed information of ancestors 2) 

(Premiums won by ancestors 3) 

(Importance of family breeding 3) 

(Detailed information as to milk and fat 
production 4) 

Total 51 points 

In Sweden, young bulls arj judged by the use of the fol- 
lowing score card : 

Pedigree 3 points 

Yield t)f ancestors 3 " 

I-'orm, general appearance, and strength 3 " 

Tot.'d 9 points 

The ability of a cow to produce milk and butter fat is 
hereditary. On this account, it would seem reasonable that 
a score card should give some weight to pedigree. In the 
judging of grade or unimproved cows, there would proba- 
bly be a lack of information of ancestors, and therefore 
such a score card would be impracticable ; but in the judg- 
ing of pure-bred dairy cattle, it would seem practical and 
advisable to give room for this important feature. Each 
association of pure-bred dairy cattle now has a score card. 

* Bulletin 120, U. S. Dept. of Agr. F. Rasmussen. 



34 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



None of these, so far as known, includes this important 
feature. Yet, when a person starts out to buy a pure-bred 
animal of either sex, he puts a great deal of stress on the 
production and the type of the near ancestors. It would 
seem that this feature deserves a place on the breed score 
cards. 




Diagram of Cow Showing Points to be Observed in 
Judging Dairy Cattle (U. S. Farmers' Bull. No. 106) : 



1. 


Head. 


16. 


Pelvic arch. 


31. 


Belly. 


2. 


Muzzle. 


17. 


Rump. 


32. 


Flank. 


3. 


Nostril. 


18. 


Tail. 


83. 


Milk or mammary vein 


4. 


Face. 


19. 


Switch. 


34. 


Fore udder. 


5. 


Eye. 


20. 


Chest. 


35. 


Hind udder. 


6. 


Forehead. 


21. 


Brisket. 


36. 


Teats. 


7. 


Horn. 


22. 


Dewlap. 


37. 


Upper thigh. 


8. 


Ear. 


23. 


ShouMer. 


38. 


Stifle. 


9. 


Cheek. 


24. 


Elbow. 


39. 


Twist. 


10. 


Throat. 


25. 


Forearm. 


40. 


Leg or gaskin. 


11. 


Neck. 


26. 


Knee. 


41. 


Hock. 


12. 


Withers. 


27. 


Ankle. 


42. 


Shank. 


13. 


Back. 


28. 


Hoof. 


43. 


Dew claw. 


14. 


Loins. 


29. 


Heart girth. 


44. 


Milk well 


15. 


Hip bone. 


30. 


Side or barrel. 







CHAPTER III 
BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



Development of breeds. — The different stages from the 
origm to the present development of our various breeds 
are not well known, but in a general way they are. The 
dairy cow is supposed to have descended from the native 
wild cow of Europe (boss primeval). Nothing definitely 
is known as to which species of the wild cattle our present 
domesticated breeds are derived from. 




FIG. 16 — The beef from the buffalo supplied food, and the hide was used 
for comfort and protection by the Indians and early settlers. 

By reason of environment, these native cows were divided 
into two groups. Some of these lived in the mountains or 
highlands, where feed was scarce and the atmosphere rare. 
Under these natural surroundings, it was necessary for 
them to traverse considerable rough land and "rustle" for 
their feed. Individuals exposed to such environment for 

35 



?>6 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



many generations develop certain cliaracteristics. They 
became active, well-muscled, and rather small of build. 
These qualities in time became acquired inherited char- 
acteristics. 

The cattle that w^ent into the lowlands developed differ- 
ently, and acquired different inherited characteristics. It 
was not necessary for these cattle to "rustle" for their feed, 
nor to climb hills and mountains. Feed was plentiful. As 
a result, the native cattle in the lowlands developed greater 




HG. i( Ihe Jjonghorn was an important beef producing animal in the 

early days of catUe ranging. (Courtesy of Prof. J. M. Ridgeway, Texas 

Ag. College.) 

size, more sluggishness, and less of the active charac- 
teristics. 

Later on, the efforts of nature were supplanted by the 
efforts of man. The laws governing proper breeding and 
selection were not well understood, but it did not take long 
for observant persons to discover the general principle that 
"like begets like," and also that feeding had an important 
effect on shaping the form and functions of cows. 

The breeding of cattle for special purposes has continued. 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 37 

It was not sufficient to obtain one breed of dairy cattle and 
one breed of beef cattle, but there are now specialized 
breeds within each of these classes. For instance, there are 
breeds that are recognized as large milk producers, and 
breeds that are recognized as producers of very rich milk. 
We thus recognize several stages in the development of 
the highly specialized dairy cow of today. 

1. The effects due principally to natural surroundings 
and conditions. 

2. The formation of classes of cows that were large milk 
producers, and classes of cows that were selected for beef, 
neither of which were yet very good dairy nor very good 
beef animals. 




FIG. 18— The Whiteface or Hereford represents the improved type of range 
cattle and in good demand for beef production. (Courtesy of Dakota Farmer.) 

3. The development of our special purpose beef breeds 
and special purpose dairy breeds. 

4. The further tendency toward specialization ^yithl,n 
breeds. The foundations of our present leading breeds of 
cattle in the United States have all been imported from 
Europe. 



38 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Breeds of Dairy Cattle 

As the principles of breeding and selection and their effects 
upon shaping the productive tendencies of cows became 
better understood, breeds of cattle for various purposes 
became numerous. 

In the past, all of our different breeds of cattle have been 
classified into three groups : 

1. Special purpose dairy breeds. 

(a) Ayrshire 

(b) Guernsey 

(c) Jersey 

2. Dual purpose, 
(a) Milking Red Polls 

3. Special purpose beef cattle. 

(a) Shorthorn 

(b) Hereford 

(c) Polled Angus 



(d) Tlolstein 

(e) Brown Sw^Iss 

(f) Dutch Belted 

(b) Milking Shorthorns 

(d) Galloway 

(e) Polled Durham 




FIG. 19 — Showing Princess Berprere 83071. She was Grand Champion 

Guernsey cow at the 1917 National Dairy Show. Official test in 300 day^ 

516 lbs. of fat. (Courtesy W. W. Marsh, Waterloo, la.) 



BRKEDS OF DAIRV CATTLE 39 

This classification has not been entirely satisfactory. 
iThere has been a tendency for several of the breeds to en- 
iisr in the dual-purpose class. 

Some of the breeders of beef cattle have found individ- 
uals that have been fair milk producers, and have adver- 
tised them as dual-purpose. There have also been some 
dairy cattle breeders who have found considerable beef 
value in their youni^ stock and have listed their breed as 
dual-purpose. 

The general farmer in the central northwest naturally 
thinks that if he can get the best milking qualities and also 
the best beef qualities combined in the same animal, that 
that is the breed to which he should tie. 

What is a dual-purpose or two-purpose cow? The two 
purposes for which the cow is kept are first, to produce 
milk economically, and secondly, to produce a calf that will 
feed wnth profit. This definition for a dual-purpose cow is 
very general. If there was a true standard definition for a 
dual-purpose cow there would not be -so much discussion 
and even disputes on this particular point. 

If a certain cow produces a calf that will net a profit of 
$15 at the end of the year, and also a profit of $15 on the 
milk produced, such a cow would be a dual-purpose cow. If 
a cow nets $25 on the milk during the year, and $15 on the 
calf, such a cow is pre-eminently a dairy cow, and should 
not be called a dual-purpose cow. A cow that produces a 
greater profit from the milk than from the calf during the 
year is manifestly a dairy cow. 

The purposes of every cow are to produce and to repro- 
duce. The difference is only in the extent to which they 
can produce milk economically, or produce a calf that will 
feed economically. The question of whether a cow is a 
beef cow, dairy cow, or a dual-purpose cow, is, then, a ques- 
tion of degree. So long as this is so, there will always be 
discussions on this particular point. 



40 larsen's farm dairying 

The ideal dual-purpose cow is the one that nets the same 
amount of profit from the calf and the milk during the year. 
Manifestly, it is almost impossible to produce or breed such 
an animal. The cow may be said to be a factory in which 
human food is manufactured from field crops. Every fac- 
tory has a main product and also by-products. Milk is the 
main product from the dairy cow. The calf and manure 
are the by-products. 

It should be understood that these two functions of a 
cow are here considered from the standpoint of producing 
human food, not from the standpoint of producing breeding 
animals. 

Probably the greatest trouble with the above-mentioned 
classification is that within one breed there are beef animals 
that are never being milked and some dairy strains that are 
milked regularly. Some breeders of the so-called dual-pur- 
pose cattle adhere to the beef type, and do not milk the 
cows. They foster the beef qualities in their breeding and 
selection. Yet these cattle are advertised as dual-purpose. 
This is clearly wrong. The average dairy farmer does not 
always understand. He usually thinks that if an animal is 
a pure-bred belonging to the particular dual-purpose breed 
that animal contains the beef and also the milk qualities. 
The following classification would be less misleading and 
complex : 

DAIRY BREEDS 

1. Ayrshire 6. Dutch Belted 

2. Guernsey 7. Dairy Shorthorns 

3. Jersey 8. Dairy Red Polls 

4. Holstein 9. Dairy Devons 

5. Brown Swiss 

A good milking Shorthorn cow or a good milking Red 
Poll cow has a form similar to any other good milking 
cow. The difference is chiefly in the size and the color. 
The relation of form to function is very close. 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



41 



BEEF BREEDS 



Red Polls 
Polled Durham 
Devons 



1. Aberdeen-Angus 5. 

2. Galloway 6. 

3. Hereford 7. 

4. Shorthorn 

Ayrshire. — The Ayrshire breed comprises cows of me- 
dium size, giving a medium large quantity of milk and con- 




FIG.- 20— Ayrshire 1 u 



H.wie's Mint Master 15819. 



^Carleton Steadfast 8806 

First as a 2 yr. old 
Castle Douglas 



Imp. Howie's Mint Master 15819-=; 
Senior Champion Ayrshire Bull 
National Dairy Show 1917 



Duke of Argyll 7493 

First and medal at Lesmagow 
iilso at Hamilton. First at 
lanark. also at Peebles, and 
first and gold medal as best 
animal in Ajrshire section 
I at Biggar 

'^ Snowdrop of Hillhouse I20?l 

9131 lbs. milk of 3.7% fat in 
38 weeks 

r Brown Prince 5059 

I First l>anark and West Linton 



1 0th 



Hillhouse Cherry 

19951 \ 

9161 lbs. of 3.57% milk I 
in 46 weeks. Dam of l^ 
Hobsland Masterpiece. 
1st and champion male 
at Inverness Highland 



yearling 



Cherry 7th 14958 



42 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



taining a medium percent of butter fat. The average weight 
of an Ayrshire cow is about 1100 pounds, and the average 
milk production is about 7000 pounds of milk, testing about 
four percent of butter fat. 

The color of the Ayrshire cow varies. Some are almost 
white. The prevailing color is red and white. 




FIG. 21 — Ayrshire cow, Shewalton's Mains Queen. 

r Ra thhill Rcneral Hunter 



fhewalton's Mains Queen 37965 
(A. R. 1830) 

M-Records: 12.853 lbs. milk. 

512.30 lbs. fat 
10,197 lbs. milk. 411.36 lbs. fat 
Great breeding and show i-ow. 
Grand champion female at 
Nat. Dairy Show 1917 



RalthhIII Look Up -< 
"11538" 
Shewafton's Mains Queen v 
(A. R. 1830) 



'5337" 



Raithhill Jeanle l«t 
"App. vol. 26, p. 454" 



Slatehoie Young I essv < 
"App. A., No. 1638' 



^Raroenoch Royal Kyle "5160" 

Brother to Blos.som 3rd of Bar- 
genoch "13074." Scotch rec- 
ord at 13 yrs: 9200 lbs. mi'K- 
ill 26 weeks' testing 4.6'".% 
and the dam of Netherton 
King Arthur, one of the great 
breeding sires of Scotland. 

Slatehoie Lessy 
"App. B. No. 2116" 



As a rule, the Ayrshire cows have a deep, wide, wedge- 
shaped body. The udder is large, square, and symmetrical, 
almost ideal in shape. Sometimes the teats are short. This 
has been one of the principal objections raised to this breed. 



r,Ri:i:i)S of dmrv cattle 



43 



Progrcs-sivc l)rccclcr.s, liowcvcr, are endeavoring to over- 
come this objection, and to a certain extent have succeeded. 

The Ayrshire breed of cattle originated in the southwest- 
ern part of Scotland in the county of Ayr. This native home 
of this breed comprises areas of rough land. Ilie climate 
is rigorous and more severe than are the native homes of the 
other three leading breeds of dairy cattle. Such conditions 
are conducive to the development of good "rustling" quali- 
ties. The Ayrshire breed ranks first among the dairy 
breeds as to ability to **rustle" for feed. 

At the present writing, the champion Ayrshire cow is 
Lily of Willowmoor 22269, with a production of 22,596 
pounds of milk containing 955.56 pounds of butter fat. She 
is owned by J. W. Clise of Washington. 

The Ayrshire breed association has its central office at 
Brandon, Vermont, from which place additional informa- 
tion regarding this breed may be obtained. 



Table Showing: 


Number of Cattle Reg'ster-d in the Different 
{jT Milk in the United Slates, to Juno 1, 1917. 


Breeds Used 




Breed 


Number registered 




Males 


Females 


Total 


Ayrshire 




42,280 

216.494 

153,230 

497,000 

15,330 

32.207 

6,074 

514 

1.250 

230 

42 

16 


70,9io 

393.997 

385,133 

738,000 

19,952 

46,590 

8,727 

899 

2,521 

785 

210 

59 




Guernsey 

Holstein , 

Jersey 

Shorthorns* 


in. 190 

610.491 

538.363 

1,235.000 


Polled Durham* 




35,282 


Red Polls* 




78.797 


Brown Swiss 


14.801 


Polled Jersey 


1.413 


Dutch Belted.... 
French Canadian 




3,771 
1 015 


Dexter. . . 




252 


Kerry 


75 



Including beef and dairy 



44 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Guernsey. — This breed of cattle originated on the island 
of Guernsey, one of the Channel island group, located off 
the coast of France, in the English Channel. This island is 
about seven by six miles, and has a population of about 




FIG. 22— Guernsey bull, Imp. Masher's Galore 8572 A. R. 

rlmp. Island Champion 62:3 A.R. 

1 24 registered daughters 
I 14 registered sons 
'Imp. France's Masher^ 
7248 A. R. ) 

28 registered daughters. | 

Imp. LaBelle Franco 14454 
1 registered son 
3 registered daughters 



Imp. Masher's Galore 8572 - 
Dropped Juno 5, 1901 
39 registered daughters, avg. 

record over 621 lbs. butter fat 
24 registered 9on3 



avg. record 697 lbs, 
butter fat. 
14 registered sons 



Zara (R. G. A. S. 3471 
P. S.) 



S. Vladimir CSS 



D. Fanny of the Doult 1692 



thirty-five thousand inhabitants. Land on the island is very 
valuable, and farming is carried on very intensively. By 
reason of its location, the climate is uniform and mild. 

Although Guernsey cows are not large, they are deep of 
body, and have remarkable ability to transform feed into 
dairy products economically. The average weight of the 
Guernsey cow is about 1000 pounds. On an average, the 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



45 



Guernsey cow produces about six thousand pounds of milk 
testing about five percent of butter fat. 

The products from this breed are very high in color. In 
this respect the Guernsey cow excels all other breeds. 

The color of the Guernsey cows also varies. As a rule, 
it is fawn with white spots well distributed all over the body. 
Some^ however, have almost a light red color. 




FIG. 23 — Guernsey cow, Langwater Dairymaid 26377. 



Langwater Dairymaid 26377 < 
(A. R. 1460) 

Record: 16,949.20 lbs. milk, 
812.66 lbs. butter fat I 



fjethro Bass 1 1 

29 registered daughters, 
13 of which have avg, 
record of 687 lbs. but 
ter fat 

Sons, 39 registered. 



rimp. King of tlie IVIay 9001 A.R. 

Daughters, 52 registered, 24 of 
which have avg. record of 
I 693 lbs. butter fat 
A. R.-< Sous, 33 registered 



^l 



Dolly Bloom 12770 A. 

Record: 17.297.51 lbs. 
836.21 lbs. butter fat 



R. 

milk. 



I Imp. Itchen Da-sy III 
I 15630 A. P.. 

Record: 13,636.8 lbs. milk 
714.1 lbs. butter fat 



IMay Day 1132 E. G. H. B. 



Daisy's Cem 3341 E. G. H. B. 



The present champion Guernsey cow is Murne Cowan 
No. 19597. She produced in one year 24,008 pounds of 



46 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



milk containing 1098.18 pounds of butter fat. She is owned 
by Anna Dean Farm of Ohio. 

Additional detailed information relative to this breed 
may be obtained from the American Guernsey Cattle Club, 
Peterboro, N. H. 

Jersey breed. — The Jersey cattle came from the islan 1 
of Jersey. Although this island is the largest of the Chan- 




FIG. 24— Jersey bull. Gamboge's Vellum's Majesty 123063. 



Julia's Mafeftv 89717 ■{ 

Sire of 3 daughters ui ', 

R. of M. [^ 



(•"D. Oxford Maiestv (''4000 

Sire of 21 daughters and 7 sons 

> I v.. cf M, 



Lord Brookhill't Jul'a 235177 



Gamboge's Vellum's Majesty -l 

123063 ) 

Dropped May 10, 1913 | 



I Sire of 42 daughters aJid 3 sons 



^Gamboge's Vellum ?57609 J 

8300.1 lbs. milk, 452 lhs.1 
fat oil R. of M. test 



in R. of M. 



^Vellum Cth P. C. C:43 H. 



nel island group, it is only about eleven by six miles, 
contains nearly sixty thousand inhabitants. 



It 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



47 



The climate, feed and surroundings on the island of jer- 
sey are much similar to those of the Guernsey island, though 
the former is a little milder. 

Although the natural conditions and surroundings of 
these two Channel island breeds have been similar, there are 




FIG. 25 — Jersey cow, Oxford Majesty's Gypsy 344076 

Rnyal Maj 

ire of 37 da 
I sons in R. of M. 



r Rnyal Majesty 79313 

I Sire of 37 daugliters and 



Oxford Majesty's Gyosy 344076 

]>roi)|)ed April 11, 1911; weight 

(l-n lbs. 
Rword: id 14. 6 lbs. milk, 54i;.02 

lbs. butter fat 



Imp. Oxford Majesty ^ 

134090 1 

Sire of 21 dangtiters and I 

7 sons in R. of M. L 



Oxford Lad's Lucy 2139(3 



(-General Fox 2d P, S. 3309 H. C. 
Imp. Gipsy Maiden 345340 J 

[ On I. of J. 



some differences in the two breeds. The Jerseys, as a rule, 
are solid of color, dark on the lower half of the body, and 
gradually growing into a fawn near the back line. A few 
of the Jersey cattle are broken in color, having white spots. 
The individuals of the Tersev breed, as a rule, have a black 



48 larsen's farm dairying 

or dark switch and tongue. The individuals of this breed 
are smaller than are the Guernseys. The average Jersey 
cow weighs about 950 pounds. 

There are two well-defined types of the Jersey; namely, 
the American type, and the Island type. Those belonging 
to the former are much larger and coarser than are those 
belonging to the Island type. The Jersey cows belonging 
to the Island type are fine-boned, thin-skinned, and not so 
coarse as the American type. 

The Jerseys, like their sister breed; give rich milk, aver- 
aging about five percent of butter fat. They produce on an 
average close to six thousand pounds of milk in a year. 
This particular breed has on various occasions demonstrated 
its ability to produce butter fat economically. This was es- 
pecially shown at the St. Louis World's Exposition. In this 
test, the Jersey breed won over all other breeds. 

The cattle on the Guernsey and Jersey islands are all 
pure-bred. Importatioi. of other cattle has been prohibited 
for many years. There are, however, two classes, the pedi- 
greed stock and the foundation stock. Because importa- 
tions are forbidden and because of strict sanitary laws, the 
Channel island breeds are remarkably free from contagious 
diseases. 

The present champion Jersey cow is Vive La France 
319619. She produced 14,925 pounds of milk and 1013.64 
pounds of butter fat. She is owned by O. Pickard, Marion, 
Oregon. 

The main office of the American Jersey Cattle Club Is at 
324 West 23d Street, New York City, where further in- 
formation regarding this breed may be obtained. 

The Holstein-Friesian breed.— These cattle originated 
in the province of Friesland in the country of Holland. 
This part of Holland borders on the North Sea, and is low, 
fertile land. Together with the skill of the breeder and 
feeder, this natural environment has produced a breed of 
cattle the individuals of which are large, deep of body, and 
wide and open of form. The individuals of this breed are 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



49 



the largest of any of the dairy breeds, and probably the 
largest of any breed. 

The Holstein-Frieslan breed of cattle is one of the oldest. 
It can be traced to about 400 B. C. This breed of cattle 
has been known in Holland for many centuries for the large 




P'lG. 26— Holstein bull, King of the Pontiacs 39037. 
and 134 proven sons. 



Sire of 23£ 



O. cows 



King of the Pontiacs 39037 - 

Dropped March 5. 1905 
Approx. weight 2500 Ihs. 
Sire of 235 AUG daughters, 135 
sons vith ARO daughters 



K.P. Pontiac Lass 
K.P. Diona Pietertje 
K.P. Mercedes Prilly 
SVay. 



44.18 
40.15 



34.25 



Pontiac Korndyke 25982-< 

145 ARO daughters 
Pontiac Lady Korn- 
dyke 38.03 
Pontiac Pet 37.68 
Pearl Neth. Korn- 
dyke 37.52 
Pont. Clotbilde De 



Kol 2d 
Sadie A'ale 

dyke 
101 sons 

daughters 



37.21 



Kom- 
wlth 



36.20 
ARO 



Pontiac Lundc Henger--< 
veld 51585 

Record : 

7 days, 559.80 lbs. 
milk. 28.41 lbs. butter 
30 days. 2405.20 lbs. 
axilk, 114.82 lbs. butter 



Manor Josepiiine De Kol 22779 
fi ARO daughters 
MaJior Star's .lose. SVzV. 20.00 
Susie Josepiiine 3y2y. 20.72 

5 sons with ABO daughters 



Belle Korndyke 13913 

Record: 7 days. 509.80 lbs, 
milk, 25.77 lbs. butter 



Henqerveld De Ko! 23102 

116 ARO daughters, 10 with 

record above 30 lbs., (18 

with records from 20 to 29.87 

66 sons with AHO daughters 



Lunde Beauty 34745 

Record: 7 days, as 2 yr. old, 
280.90 lbs. milk, 11.84 lbs. 
butter 



50 



LARSEN S FARM DATRVING 



amount of milk produced, and for the large oxen obtained 
from them. 

The individuals of this breed have great capacity for uti- 
lizing large quantities of rough feed, and transforming it 
into large quantities of milk. The average annual produc- 
tion of a Holstein cow is about eight thousand five hundred 




FIG 27 — Holstein cow. Duchess Skylark Or->i by 124^14. world's champion 
cow. Year record 27,761.7 lbs. milk, 1506.36 lbs. butter. 

Sir Ormsby Hennerveld De 

Kol 31212 

GO ARO daughters 

4 with records from W to 35.56 

36 others from 20 to 29.28 lbs. 



Ouchess Skylark Ormsby 124514"= 

DroDped Oct. .SI, 1909 
Approx. weight 1800 lbs. 
Rtx'ord: 27,761.70 lbs, milk 
1506.36 lbs. butter 
World's record of IIol- 
steins and over all 
bree<ls 



Skylark Mercedes De Kol 53644 

Rword: 7 days 

452.90 lbs. milk 
22.67 lbs. butter 



■Sir Ormsby SkvIark470IO< 

11 ARO daughters 
Duchess Skylark 

Ormsby 34.36 

Buffalo Sen-Sen 

Skylark 2G.71 

Buffalo rarthenea 

Skvlark 25.06 

Buffalo Posch Sky- 

^ '^'■^ ^ • c ^^-^^ rJohn of Barneveldt 35865 
Buffalo Banzie Sky- [2 aRO daughters 

lark 21.87 Oakhurst Duch. Cloth., 

J 41/.V. 19. P7 

Oakhur't Duchess "S Milk 494.90 

Clothllde 106988 Oakhurst Paladin. 2%y. 13.78 

Record: .'!52 days 

15,764.60 lbs. milk '^ Clothllde Princess Oakhurst 
640.00 lbs. butter 85252 

Record: 7 davs 

473.80 lbs. milk 
16,86 lbs. butter 



BRKEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 51 

pounds of milk, testin,^ about three and five-tenths percent 
of butter fat. The Holstein-Friesian cows give the largest 
flow of milk of any dairy cattle, but it contains a lower per- 
cent of butter fat than the milk from any of the other dairy 
breeds. The progressive breeders are now endeavoring to 
improve this, and judging from the records in the advanced 
registry, if this is a fair basis, the percent of fat is grad- 
ually increasing. 

The Holstein-Friesian cattle are black and white in color. 
So far as known, there is no definite relation between color 
and production. The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle has 
been reared singularly free from fads and styles. 

The breeders of Holstein cattle have been foremost in the 
testing of cows for advanced registry. It was the first 
breed association to start official testing. The rules by 
which these tests are conducted are strict. The advanced 
registry records have enabled the Holstein-Friesian Associ- 
ation of America to show the productivity of the breed. 
Perhaps the greatest usefulness of these records is that they 
enable breeders to locate the best producers and families in 
the breed. In this manner, breeders have been better able 
to select good foundation stock. The observance of the 
principle of hereditary connection with production is well 
demonstrated in the Holstein-Friesian breed and also in the 
other leading dairy breeds. 

The calves from this breed are large. They frequently 
weigh about one hundred pounds at time of birth. This 
makes the Holstein calves very desirable for veal purposes. 
The weight of a Holstein calf at time of birth exceeds that 
of any other breed. 

The champion cow of the Holstein breed, which is also 
the world's champion cow at the present writing, is Duchess 
Skylark Ormsby, No. 124514, with a record of 27,761 
pounds of milk containing 1205.09 pounds of fat. The 
average test is 4.34 percent. This cow is owned by John 
B. Irwin of Minnesota. 

The head office of the Holstein-Friesian Association of 



52 larsen's farm dairying 

America is Brattleboro, Vermont, from which place addi- 
tional information may be had. 

Summary of four leading dairy breeds. — The dairy 
farmer should endeavor to select the breed which he likes 
the best. As a rule, a man does not succeed with anything 
he does not like. 

Secondly, the kind of dairying and the market for the 
dairy produce have a bearing upon the breed to select. For 
instance, if rich and highly colored milk is desired, then 
Guernseys or Jerseys should be selected. If milk of large 
quantity and of less richness is desired, then the Holstein- 
Friesian breed is most desirable. 

Thirdly, if the dairyman desires to keep registered stock, 
he should also be guided by the demand for young stock 
from the particular breed in his locality. 

Fourthly, the kind of land owned by the dairyman and 
the kind of climate should have some bearing as to what 
breed to select. If the climate is rigorous, the farm com- 
posed of rough, low and half waste land, and the herd is 
expected to face such conditions, then probably the Ayr- 
shires would be most suitable. 

As to hardiness and the ability to handle rough feeds, the 
dairy breeds rank as follows : Ayrshire, Holstein, Guern- 
sey, and Jersey. As to amount of milk, the different breeds 
rank as follows: Holstein, Ayrshire, Guernsey, Jersey. 
As to quality of milk, they rank as follows : Jersey, Guern- 
sey, Ayrshire, and Holstein. As to color of milk, the Guern- 
sey ranks first, then Jersey, Ayrshire, and Holstein. As to 
size, the Holstein breed ranks first. Ayrshire second, Guern- 
sey third, and Jersey fourth. There are profitable and 
large producing individuals and strains in all of these 
breeds, and there are also poor ones in all of the breeds. It 
is of greatest importance to emphasize individuals or fam- 
ilies within a breed. This is probably of greater impor- 
tance than emphasizing breed. The fact that certain in- 
dividuals belong to one of the above mentioned dairy breeds 
is no assurance that they are profitable performers. Im- 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTI-E 



53 



proper selection within a breed has often discouraged dairy- 
men with a certain breed of dairy cattle. 

The less common dairy breeds. — Many dairy farmers of 
the central west have inherited a certain liking for the 
square, fat, and smooth cow. During the range period, and 
during the immediate succeeding period, this type of cow 
has been set up as an ideal. The lean type of dairy cow, 
with a wedge-shaped body, does not always appeal to the 
man who has been educated to the other type and has had 
experience with it. 

For this reason, many dairy farmers in the central west 
select one of the breeds of cattle that has not been extremxcly 
developed for dairy purposes. They feel that as land in- 
creases in value and as farms become smaller and feed 
higher in price, they need to have more than a calf from the 
cow every year, hence they select one of the so-called dual- 
purpose types. They get as much milk as they can from 
these cows, and raise a calf on the skim milk. Those who 
practice this method, as a rule, make more money from the 
cows than do those wdio are not milking at all. This pe- 
riod apparently spans the range and the intensified farming 
period. As the population increases, as farms become 
smaller, and as land grows more expensive, less use is 
made of the general-purpose cow. 



Table Showing: Composition of Milk from the Different Breeds 



Breed 


Total 

solids 

Percent 


Fat 
Percent 


Proteins 
Percent 


Milk- 
sugar 
Percent 


Ash 
Percent 




12.88 
14.54 
12.25 
14.87 
12.45 
13.77 
12.96 
13.27 
12.40 
13.70 
13.37 


3.62 

5.07 

3.48 

5.19 

3.65 

4.15 

3.92 

4.24 

3.6 

4.7 

4.18 


3.45 
3.76 
3.33 
3.94 
3.27 
3.76 


5.03 
4.95 
4.76 
5.00 
4.80 
5.07 

:::: 


0.7 


Guernsey 


0.75 




0.69 


Jersey 


0.75 




0.73 




0.76 


Red Polls 








Dutch Belted 




Kerry 




Dexters 





54 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



The Brown Swiss breed of cattle came from Switzer- 
land. This breed is famous as a producer of dairy prod- 
ucts. Switzerland is the home of the famous Swiss or Em- 
menthaler cheese. The Brown Swiss cattle are large. In 
this respect they rank second only to Holsteins. They 
carry considerable flesh. They are hardy, good feeders, 
and worthy of replacing many of the poor scrub cows now 
being milked. 

The Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association is at Be- 




Brown Swiss bull. Reuben 2927. 



Lot of Lake View 3950 

Dropped Feb. 24, iyi2 

Grand Champion bull at the 

Iowa and Wisconsin Stale 

Fairs 1917 



Reuben 2927 
Four daugliters in R. V. 
with average of 455.0!) 
lbs. fat at an average 
age of two years and 
three moiiths 



Lottie G. D. 3530 ' 

Official records: 17.595.3 
lbs. milk, 664.25 lbs. 
fat. 

1st prize at National 
Dairy Show 1916 



Junker 2365 (Imp.) 
Six daughters in B. 1*. 



Reh 3456 (Imp.) 

Official record of 12.912.6 lbs. 
milk and 456.06 lbs. fat 

Forestville Prince 2045 
Two daughters in R. P. 



Lottie G. 3rd 2875 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



55 



loit, Wisconsin, where additional information regarding 
this breed may be obtained. 

College Bravura 2d 2577, owned by Michigan Agricul- 
tural College. Michigan, is the champion cow in this breed. 
She produced in one year 19,460.6 pounds of milk and 
798.16 pounds of butter fat. 




Lottie G. D. 3530 

Official record of 17.595.3 lbs. 

milk. 664.25 lbs. fat 
1st prize cow at National 

Dairy Show 1916 



Forestville Prince 2045 
Two daughters in R. P. 



Lottie G. 3rd 2875 



Edgard 1817 
One daughter in R. P. 



Coiiege Bravura 2nd 2577 
World's record Brown Swiss 



Official record of 10.460.6 \bs. 
milk. 798.16 lbs. fat 



Tfie Kid i477 
One daughter in R. P. 



Lottie G. 1844 



56 



LaRSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



The Dutch Belted cattle were imported from Holland. 
In the United States they have not as yet distinguished them- 
selves as very large milk and butter fat producers. These 
cattle are not large of form. They have never gained much 
of a foothold in this country. The white belt around their 
body is typical, and when the whole herd is grazing, their 
appearance is attractive. 

The Dutch Belted Cattle Association has its headquar- 
ters at Covert, Michigan. 




FIG. 30— Dutch Belted cow, Fair Lily 965. 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



57 



The Red Poll breed of cattle is claimed to be the typical 
general-purpose breed. The individuals of this breed are 
smooth, and have a refined appearance. Some individ- 
uals and strains are good dairy cows. Those who have 
shown Red Poll cattle at our large state fairs in competi- 
tion with the beef breeds have learned that the dairy type, 
or dairy form, is not winning points in the beef cattle show 
ring. As a consequence, some breeders have emphasized 
beef qualities. The Red Polled cattle have the advantage of 
being without horns. They are dark red in color and 
were imported to the United States from England. 

The Red Polled Cattle Club of America is at Gotham, 




FIG. 31— Red Poll bull. Proctor Knott 12092. 



Proctor Knott 12092 

13 years of age, weight 2030 

Jbs. 
Sire of J. D. Beauty 31725, 

Champion Red Polled cow 
Reoord 20.280 lbs. milk. 891.5 

lbs. of butter fat 



Imp. Corporal 4313 " 
5 A. R. daughters, avg. 
record 423 lbs. butter 
fat 



Portia 8858 

8000 lbs. milk 4.5% for* 
several years 



Red 

Champion 
years 



Prince 2902 
of England for 3 



Coronet M 5367 
Average 9000 lbs. milk for 9 

years 
First prize London Dairy Show 



Imp. Hesperus 1394 
3 A. R. daughters, avg. record 
402 lbs. butter fat 



Polly II 1378 

10,500 lbs. milk in year 



58 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



regarding 



Wisconsin, at which place further information 
this breed may be obtained. 

The champion Red Poll cow is Jean DuLuth Beauty 
331725, owned by Jean DuLuth Farm, Minnesota. She 
produced in one year 20,280.6 pounds of milk, and 891.58 
pounds of butter fat. 




FIG. 32— Red Poll cow, Jean Du Luth Pear 28991. 



Jean Du Luth P'-ir 28991 

Dropped Nov. 1. 1(»07 

Record: 16.^89.4 lbs. rnVk. 

707.24 lbs. butter fat. 

World's record for Red Polls 

at time 
World's Champion Red Polled 

cow for two conseciit'vp yrnr- 

ly official tests— 1254.24 lbs. 

butter fat 



Crefoo Dav'd 13445 
3 A. R. daughters, !\\ 
record 535.6 Iba. bi; 
ter fat 



Pear 24888 

^ Total for 6 consecutive 
yearly oflRcial tests: 
2587.05 lbs. butter fat 

Champion long distance 
Red Polled cow 

Record for one year 
603. G6 lbs. butter fat 



David 10242 

Grand sire of 3 A. R. cows, 
avg. 535.6 lbs. butter fat 

Cresco Tip 4th 18104 

Her sire and sire of her dam 
both sired A. R. cows 



Imp. Corporal 4313 

5 A. R. dau'^hters. avg. record 
432 lbs. butter fat 

Peach IR80I 

Dam of Pattie. 435 lbs. buttf^r 
fat; Pear, 603 lbs. buittr fat 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 



59 



The Devon breed of cattle came from England. The 
individuals of this breed are dark red in color. They are 
smooth and of good appearance, hardy, and of medium 
size. It is one of the oldest of breeds. They are generally 
recognized as more of a beef than a dairy breed. This 
breed is not common in the United States. The American 
Devon Cattle Club is at West Chester, Pennsylvania. 

The Shorthorn breed of cattle is well represented in the 
central west of the United States, and the Shorthorn blood 
is found in most of the herds in the central west. 

Two classes of Shorthorns are generally recognized: 
namely, the dairy strain, which is often referred to as the 
Bates, and the beef strain, frequently called the Cruick- 




FIG. 33— Dairy Shorthorn bull. General Clay 255920. 

Kirby 17th 160774 



r Duke of 
Imp. Duke Buttercup J 

I6"769 i 

19 daughters in Eecord (^ 



General Clay 255920 -^ 

30 daughters in Eecord of 
Merit 



of Merit 



Mamie Clay 2d 

V. 48-342 
13,232 lbs. milk in one 
year' 



Duchess Butterfly 
V.45-297E 



Cecil Palmer 133376 

9 daugliters in Record of Merit 



Mamie Clay 
V. 38-482 



60 larsen's farm dairying 



FIG. 34 — Dairy Shorthorn cow, Mamie's Minnie. 
fOuke of Granville 186290 



. ,!i'o?','t'* '^J""''' n, \ r Cecil Palmer 133376 



shank or the Scotch. While there are some good milking 
Shorthorns among the Scotch, most of the best milking 
Shorthorns are found within the Bates strain. 

The milking Shorthorns are quite common in England, 
and are used there extensively for dairy purposes. In that 
country, breeders pay much attention to keeping up the 
milking qualities. 

During the last two decades there has been a tendency to 
use chiefly the beef type of the Shorthorns in the United 
States. The Shorthorn Association of America has favored 
the beef type rather than the dairy type of the Shorthorns. 

Years ago there were more good milking Shorthorn cows 
than there are today. The few herds of dairy Shorthorns 
left in the United States have not been able to keep up the 
milking characteristics of the breed. 



BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 61 

If this particular breed is going to be selected for niilk 
production, great care should be exercised in order to obtain 
representatives of the milking Shorthorns. 

Recently the Shorthorn Association of America organized 
a register for dairy Shorthorns having produced a certain 
amount of milk during a year. 

On account of the great variation within the breed, it is 
impossible to get an average size or an average production. 

Their color is red, roan, white and red, and even pure 
white. 

The dairy Shorthorn cattle produce milk of average rich- 
ness, containing about four percent of butter fat. 

Further detailed information may be obtained from the 
American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, 13 Dexter Park 
Avenue, Chicago, Illinois. 

The American Dairy Shorthorn Cattle Club has its 
central office at Burg Hill, Ohio. 

The French-Canadian, the Dexter, and the Kerry cattle 
have not attained much of a foothold as yet in the United 
States. The offices of the American Kerry and Dexter 
Cattle Club are maintained at Columbus, Ohio. 

The American French-Canadian Cattle Breeders' x'Vsso- 
ciation has its headquarters at Milford, New York. 



CHAPTER IV 

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 

Many factors enter into establishing the value of a dairy 
cow. It is evident that a herd of dairy cows may be, as a 
whole, valuable and profitable, and yet there may be indi- 
viduals in that herd which are not profitable. The value of 
each individual cow may vary according to who owns her, 
or according to the skill applied in bringing out the best 
qualities in her. 

Certain qualities in a particular cow may appeal more 
strongly to one person than they do to another. To facili- 
tate the study of the value of a dairy cow, we may con- 
veniently employ the following chief heads : 

I. Economic value. 

1. Ability to convert feed into milk and milk solids 

profitably. 

2. Value of calf. 

3. Value of manure. 

4. Value of feed consumed. 

5. Number of years of profitable performance. 

6. Amount and distribution of labor. 

7. Beef value at end of dairy usefulness. 

8. Amount of investment in cow. 

9. Amount of investment in barn and milk house, 

milking machine, and other dairy utensils. 
10. General expenses. 
II. Esthetic value. 

1. Appearance. 

2. Disposition. 

62 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IX THL DAIRV HERD 63 

Economic Value 

The financial and economic value of a dairy cow does not, 
as a rule, receive the analytical study and attention which 
its importance demands. Many cow keepers, as dairying is 
now practiced, breed, feed, milk and care for cows continu- 
ously without making any efforts towards ascertaining what 
financial returns each cow in the herd is making. As a 
consequence of this neglect, relatively few improvements 
are being made in the productiveness of dairy cows, and 
many dairy cows are kept at a very small profit and even at 
a loss, and the dairy industry is thereby discouraged and 
the mass of consumers complain of the high cost of dairy 
products. 

Ability to convert feed into milk and milk products. — 

Milk is the most valuable product from the dairy cow. 
Quality as well as quantity of milk should be considered. 
Inasmuch as butter fat constitutes the most valuable com- 
mercial constituent of milk, and since the rest of the milk 
solids, protein, milk sugar, and minerals, are usually utilized 
in the form of skim milk, the value in this discussion shall 
be based upon the amount and value of butter fat and skim 
milk. 

The keeping of a dairy cow means the investment of a 
certain amount of money. The profitableness of this invest- 
ment is determined by the money the cow can return annu- 
ally above the expense of feed, care, shelter, interest, depre- 
ciation and risk. Some cows make no returns on the invest- 
ment, many make small net returns, and some make large 
annual net profits. 

Granting that the owner gives good care and feed, the 
amount of the net profit depends largely on the kind of a 
cow. With few exceptions, it is reasonable to assume that 
the different kinds of cows are to be found in all dairy 
herds. This is, therefore, a large field in which to work for 
the improvement of dairy herds. 



64 larsen's farm dairying 

The following statement has been prepared from the 
records of two cows under the author's supervision. The 
commercial or market value of these two cows is about one 
hundred dollars and seventy dollars respectively. 



cow 


NO. 1 


Hay, 1.9 tons @ $7 $13.33 

Silzge, 2.5 tons m $5 12.53 

Grain mixture, 3750 pounds 

(a) lo 37.50 


483 pounds of fat Q 30c $144.03 

13,000 pounds of skim milk @ 

25c per cwt 32.50 

Calf 10 00 


Pasture, four months 4.03 

Labor 25.00 

Depreciation on cow per year 


10 tons of manure Co! $l.gO... 15.00 


Interest on $103 @ 87o 8.00 

Interest on barn investment 

($1000 for 30 cows) 2.66 

Depreciation on barn per cow 

per year 1.60 

RL k or insurance on barn 42 

R sk or insurance on cow 45 

Servic3 fee 2.00 

General expenses (veterinary, 

medicine, etc., bedding).... 5.00 


■ 


Total expenses $121 83 




Total net profit 79.67 




$201.50 


$201.50 


... 


cow 


NO. 2 


Hay. 1.8 tons (?? $7 $12.60 

Silag'e, 1.7 t-ns (Tv $5 8.50 

Grsin mixture, 1183 pounds 

(ri) le 11 83 


148 pounds fat @ 30c $44.40 

3200 pounds skim milk @ 25c 

per cwt 8.00 

Calf 5 03 


Pasture, four months 4.00 

Labor 25.00 

Depreciation on cow per year 

eight years) 5.62 

Interest on $70 (a) 8% 5.60 

Interest on barn investment 

($1000 for 30 cows) 2.66 

De-reciation on barn per cow 

rer ye^r 1 69 


8 tons manure @ $1.50 12.03 


P'sk or insurance on bam 42 




Rj^k or insurance on cows 33 

S'^rvice fee 2 00 


$69.40 
Total loss 15.73 






Total expenses $85.13 


$85.13 





The value of the produce from dairy cows is difficult to 
fix, as it varies under different conditions and in different 
localities. This is especially true with reference to butter 
fat. These two cows, the records of which appear in the 
above tables, freshened in the fall, and the price received 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 65 

for the butter fat averaged a little more than thirty cents 
per pound. The price used in making the above statement 
is thirty cents, which represents the figure obtainable under 
average conditions. 

The average value of 25 cents per 100 pounds for skim 
milk for feeding purposes is a conservative price. Accord- 
ing to experimental evidence, for general feeding purposes 
to calves and pigs on the farm, 100 pounds of skim milk 
equals the value of one-half bushel of corn. For instance, 
if the market value of corn per bushel is 50 cents, then 100 
pounds of skim milk is worth 25 cents. Another rule for 
obtaining the value of skim milk for feeding purposes is 
that 100 pounds of skim milk equals five times the value of 
one pound of hog, live weight. If hogs are worth eight 
cents per pound, then 100 pounds of skim milk have a value 
of 40 cents. 

Skim milk fed to young pigs, or to chickens, may be 
made to bring as much as 75 cents per 100 pounds. The 
above price is considered to be the average value for feed- 
ing ordinary calves and stock hogs on the farm. 

Value of calf. — The commercial value of the ordinary 
grade calf from different cows is also difficult to determine. 
The calves, be they male or female, from the poorest cows 
in the herd are not worth more than they will bring for veal. 
This is about eight cents per pound. Usually a calf cannot 
be sold for veal until he is at least four weeks old. The 
v/eight of a calf at this age varies a great deal, according to 
parentage and according to the manner in which he has been 
cared for. Probably the average weight is about one 
hundred pounds. Such a calf is then v/orth about $8. 

The male calves from the good grade cows belong in the 
same class. In some instances, the male calves from the 
best cows and sired by pure-bred dairy sires are used as 
herd headers. This is a mistake. If they are not raised as 
steers, they should be sold as veal. 

The female calves from the best producing cows and 
sired by a good, pure-bred, well-selected sire are worth 



66 larsen's farm dairying 

considerably more for raising and for replacing other cows 
in the dairy herd. Such a grade heifer may be worth 
twenty dollars. 

Granting that 50 percent of the calves are females, the 
average value of the calves from the good grade dairy 
cows, if properly sired, is about $10 when they are about 
two wrecks old. This is the value given in the above state- 
ment, page 64. 

It is apparent that pure-bred calves, especially when their 
ancestors are large producers and of good type, are worth 
a great deal more. Several cases are on record where one 
pure-bred calf sold for as much as twenty thousand dollars. 
The value of a calf, then, may be considered to vary be- 
tween five dollars and the above. 

Value of manure. — In the above statement, the value of 
the manure has been fixed at one dollar and fifty cents per 
ton. Calculating on the basis of the composition of cow 
manure, and the value of artificial fertilizers, it is worth two 
dollars per ton. The former price, however, has been set as 
more nearly correct. There are always some leakages of 
fertility which cannot be conserved and utilized. The total 
quantity of manure voided by different cows varies accord- 
ing to amount and quality of feed eaten and according to 
completeness of digestion. In the above statement, the 
quantity of manure voided by each of the two cows rep- 
resents estimates based upon experiments conducted at the 
Pennsylvania station. 

Value of feed consumed. — The feed consumed by the two 
cows referred to w^as carefully weighed, and the figures 
showing the quantity of feed eaten are accurate to the 
pound. The value given the grain and hay is also the price 
actually paid. The value of silage, $5 per ton, is estimated. 

The value of feed varies in different parts of the United 
States. This is especially true with reference to the rough 
feed, especially hay. The value of rough feed may even 
vary greatly within one state. For instance, in western 
South Dakota alfalfa hay for many years past has b^en 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 67 

selling for about $5 per ton in the stack and about $7 per 
ton in bales, while in the eastern part of the state good 
alfalfa hay sells for $10 to $15 per ton. The author has 
observed that in the central northwest rough feeds are 
relatively cheap — the price of hay usually ranging from $5 
to $12 per ton. In the eastern part of the United States 
hay frequently sells at from $12 to $20 per ton. This varia- 
tion in price of feeds is an important item in considering the 
cost of keeping a cow ; and, therefore, in calculating the 
profits from a cow it is clear that the greater the cost of 
feed, the more the cow needs to produce, in order to be a 
profitable animal. The feed cost represents about one-half 
of the expenses of keeping a cow. 

Special attention is directed to the figures in the above 
statement showing comparative cost of keeping cows of dif- 
ferent producing capacities. For instance, the cost of keep- 
ing cow No. 2, which produced $69.40 worth of produce, is 
$85.13, while the cost of keeping cow No. 1, producing 
nearly three times the value of products ($201.50), is not 
three times as great, as at first thought one might expect, 
but is only $121.83. In other words, cow No. 1 produced 
$132.10 worth of produce more than No. 2, and it cost 
only $36.70 more to feed and care for this cow. It costs 
more to feed a good cow than it does a poor one, but this 
cost does not increase in proportion to the increase cf 
products. There is but one body to maintain in each cas3. 
In one instance, there is a living machine with greater effi- 
ciency and capacity. In the other case, this machine for 
transforming feed into dairy products has less capacity and 
efficiency. The food for body maintenance, or the food 
that supplies the energy and keeps the, various organs of 
the body in operation varies but little in different dairy 
cows kept under similar conditions, while the portion of the 
food used by the cow for production varies about in pro- 
portion to the amount given by the cow\ 

The St. Louis World's Fair cow demonstration test is 
one of the largest and most authoritative public cow tests 



68 larsen's farm dairying 

of its kind that has been conducted. The test lasted one 
hundred and twenty days. Twenty-five Jerseys, 15 Hol- 
steins, five Brown Swiss, and 24 Shorthorns, a total of 69 
picked cows, chosen according to dairy excellence and repre- 
senting the different breeds, were entered in this test. This 
test and others, demonstrational and experimental, show 
results similar to those in the statements. It costs but little 
more to feed a good cow than it does to feed a poor one. 

In the St. Louis cow test, the difference in the cost of 
feed consumed by the best and poorest Jersey cows was 
$1.76. The difference in the value of dairy products from 
the same cows was $29.17. 

The difference in cost of feed consumed by the best and 
poorest Brown Swiss cow was $1.28, while the difference 
in the value of dairy products was $12.54. 

The difference in the cost of feed between the best and 
poorest Holstein-Friesian cows was $1.90, while the differ- 
ence in value of dairy products from the same cows was 
$36.09. 

The difference in cost of feed between the poorest and 
be:t cows in the Shorthorn breed was $5.78. The difference 
in value of dairy products from the same cows was $31.29. 

These figures are not cited to show the difference in 
breeds. There are factors which would affect the above 
results. For instance, some of the cows might have been 
on full feed previous to freshening, and therefore in good 
flesh. It is evident that a cow in such condition, if of right 
dairy temperament, would produce more dairy products 
from less feed than would a cow which was just in ordinary 
flesh at the time the test began. The data, however, uni- 
formly shows how important it is to emphasize large pro- 
duction of individual cows in the herd. 

The following table shows the highest and lowest pro- 
ducer in three different herds of Jersey cows reported by 
Prof. F. Rasmussen of the New Hampshire station in 
Bulletin No. 2. 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 



69 















Cost 








Cow 






Feed 




100 


Cost 


Return for 


Herd 


No. 


Milk 


Fat 


cost 


Profit 


lbs. 
milk 


lib. 

fat 


31.00 


A 




12,275 


463.5 


3106.80 


3119.00 


30.8/ 


30.23 


,S2.12 






1,540 


60.4 


44.73 


15.38 


2.90 


.74 


.66 


R 




9,773 


351.2 


96.21 


76.88 


.98 


.27 


1.80 






3,824 


155.3 


69.28 


5.15 


1.81 


.45 


.92 


c 




8,410 


307.3 


83.58 


65.11 


.99 


.27 


1.78 






4 84.=; 


227.3 


73.83 


16.44 


1.52 


.32 


1.22 



Cow No. 1 equals seven like No. 6 in profit. 
Cow No. 5 equals four like No. 6 in profit. 

Cost of labor. — The labor necessary to care for a dairy 
herd properly is an important item of expense. The cost of 
labor per cow varies according to the kind of dairy farming. 

If dairying is carried on with a view to supplying milk 
and cream for city use, or direct consumption, the cost of 
labor is relatively great. When milk is produced under such 
conditions, all surroundings must necessarily be kept up to 
a high standard. The milk and cream produced for small 
children and for the tables must be of the highest quality 
possible. In fact, city ordinances and city inspectors often 
make certain ideal conditions mandatory. For instance, the 
stables must be washed out daily. The cows are tested once 
each year for tuberculosis. The herd is examined about 
every month by a veterinarian. No new cows are permitted 
to be brought into the herd unless they are first tested for 
tuberculosis, and have otherwise undergone a health ex- 
amination. In connection with such a milk plant, the milk 
is probably clarified. The milk is bottled and properly 
cooled before delivery. In addition, it is necessary to pro- 
duce a uniform supply of milk during the whole year. 
Dairying in this case cannot be niched in with other farm 
work. It can readily be seen that milk production under 
such conditions requires more labor, and more costly labor, 
than is necessary under any other system of dairy farming. 

The cost of labor on the average dairy farm is much less. 
There are many farms where the additional labor needed 
for the cows costs no more than if no cows were kept. 
Under such conditions, the cows are milked and cared for 



70 

in connection with other chores, in the morning before the 
day's work in the field is begun, and in the evening when the 
work in the field is ended. In the past in the central north- 
west, dairy farming has been carried on largely in accord- 
ance with this system. This method of caring for the dairy 
herd, however, is gradually changing. Farmers are realiz- 
ing that to feed and care for the dairy herd is just as much 
of a day-time business as to do any kind of field work. It 
is the above system that has caused so much labor to be 
dissatisfied with dairy farming. Much farm labor dis- 
criminates against the farmer who has cows to milk. This 
is not because the laborers do not like the work connected 
with cows, so much as it is that the milking and other chores 
are often imposed upon the help at the time of day when 
other laborers on grain farms are entirely free from duties. 
If business methods are applied in the selection and keep- 
ing of dairy cows, a farmer can afford to pay for labor to 
take care of the dairy herd during seasonable hours of the 
day. 

There are very few farmers in the central northwest who 
keep more cows than can be taken care of with the normal 
amount of help needed for running the farm. The prudent 
dairy farmer plans on distributing the work on the farm 
throughout the whole year. He does not aim to have his 
cows freshen in the spring at the same time that his crops 
are to be put in. He does not plan to have the little calves 
to feed, and the cows to milk the greatest flow during the 
summer months, when most of his work needs to be done 
in the field. The wise dairy farmer plans to have his herd 
of cows freshen in the fall. The help needed for crop pro- 
duction during the summer can then be kept throughout the 
winter months. If dairy farming is carried on by this 
method, a good man, with reasonably handy and up-to-date 
barn equipment can take care of about thirty cows. Such 
a man receives about $50 per month. It may then be said 
that under average farm conditions the expense of caring 
for one cow per year is about $25, allowing $5 per year per 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY H-ERD 71 

COW for extra labor. These are the figures used in obtain- 
ing the data in the above statement. 

Beef value of cow. — A healthy dairy cow having a 
normal constitution always has two values, one for dairying, 
and one for beef. The dairy value may be obtained day by 
day and year by year. To realize on the beef, it is necessary 
to slaughter the cow. When the dairy cow is young, after 
her first freshening, she possesses the highest dairy value, 
not because she is then the most profitable performer, but 
because she has the best period of dairy usefulness before 
her. It is generally recognized that a dairy cow is at her 
best when she is about seven years old. The length of a 
dairy cow's usefulness varies with different cows. In the 
herd of which the author has charge, there are cows that 
are fifteen years old and have been profitable performers 
for about thirteen years. This, however, does not repre- 
sent the average. The average duration of a dairy cow's 
usefulness for dairy purposes is about eight years. It 
probably is not wise to keep the average grade cow till she 
is physically unable to perform dairy work. The last couple 
of years of a dairy cow's usefulness, her teeth and other 
digestive organs are usually not efficient. Generally speak- 
ing, it is well to dispose of a cow to the block while she is 
still in good physical health. This may not apply to a good 
pure-bred cow. The calf from such an individual would be 
worth more than the cow would be for meat. 

Considering, then, that eight years is the length of a cow's 
dairy usefulness, after about 10 years such a cow possesses 
only a beef value. It therefore follows that the dairy value 
decreases with age. The difiference between the sum of the 
dairy and beef value after her first freshening and the beef 
value at the end of the cow's dairy usefulness would repre- 
sent the depreciation of the dairy cow in value. This depre- 
ciation is distributed over eight years. Cow No. 2, which 
has a beef and dairy market value of about $70 when young 
and a beef value of $25 after her period of dairy usefulness 
is over, depreciates $45 in eight years, or $5.62 a year. 



72 larsen's farm dairying 

Cow No. 1, which has a total commercial value of $100 
when young and a beef value of $25 at the close of her 
eight years of dairy usefulness, depreciates $75 in the eight 
years, or $9.40 a year. In purchasing a dairy cow, this 
question of depreciation in dairy value with age should be 
considered. At times, the commercial value of a dairy cow 
near the end of her dairy usefulness is high, and dairymen 
can thus often obtain a good price for such individuals. 
The beef value of a dairy cow varies considerably, accord- 
ing to the size and the condition of the cow at time of sale. 

Interest and depreciation. — The dairy farmer has con- 
siderable capital invested in dairy cows and other dairy and 
barn equipments. The use of money is worth a certain 
amount, and in reckoning the cost of keeping cows, the 
interest on the investment should be properly considered 
and charged against the cow. The point may be raised that 
if interest on cow investment has to be charged to the cost 
of keeping, it is equally fair to include also the interest on 
the investment in implements for the cultivation of crops. 
Some authorities have considered the cost from this double 
viewpoint. 

As previously mentioned, the dairy cow is considered as 
a means through which crops are marketed. Viewing the 
subject from this standpoint, we see that only such things 
as are essential in keeping, feeding and caring for the dairy 
herd and milk should be included. 

The money invested in the two cows referred to in the 
above statement is $100 and $70 respectively. Strictly speak- 
ing, the principal invested in each of the two cows decreases 
only by $9.40 in the first instance and $5.62 in the second 
per year. In the first instance the interest would therefore 
decrease at the rate of 75 cents on the investment and in 
the second at the rate of 45 cents per year. The expense of 
keeping these two cows would be reduced by this sum each 
year during the eight years. At the end cf the eight years, 
the above value, plus depreciation and interest, should at 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IX THE DAIRY HERD 72) 

least equal the invested sum and earnings at eight percent 
in any other investment. 

It is essential to have suitable barn room for the dairy 
herd. Therefore, the interest on barn investment and barn 
depreciation should be charged against tlie cost of keeping 
the cow. A suitable barn for 30 head, which would proba- 
bly mean about 20 milk cows, with hay room above, can be 
built for about $2000. It is fair to charge half of this 
against the cows and the other half against the storage of 
feed. The amount of barn investment chargeable against 
each of the 30 head of cattle is $33.33. The annual interest 
at eight percent equals $2.66. 

Such a barn should last at least 20 years, and if properly 
painted and kept in repair, should last longer than this. 
Five percent annual depreciation should then be charged 
against the cost of keeping the dairy cow, which would 
amount to $1.60 per cow per year. 

There is also a certain risk involved, against which the 
dairyman should be protected. Insurance may be carried 
on the cows at the rate of $2.25 per $100 valuation for five 
years, which would amount to 45 cents annually on cow 
No. 1 and 30 cents on cow No. 2. 

The rate of barn insurance is about $12.50 per $1000 for 
three years, and would therefore amount to about 42 cents 
per cow per year, which is also charged against keeping a 
dairy cow. 

General expenses. — In addition to the fixed charges, 
there are a number of general expenses in connection with 
running the dairy herd which are difficult to estimate 
definitely. Usually there is some expense for veterinary 
service and for medicine. There are general expenses for 
'perishable utensils, such as pails, cans, and other sundries. 

Bedding is another item which has not been considered in 
the cost of keeping a cow. In South Dakota, conditions at 
the present time are such that bedding can be obtained for 
the hauling. This same condition probably prevails through- 
out the entire west and northwest. On most farms there is 



74 larsen's farm dairying 

plenty of straw which can be used for bedding which other- 
wise would go to waste. It is, of course, different In the 
eastern part of the United States, where it is necessary to 
buy bedding. 

Service fee. — Maternity is the chief incentive to milk 
production. It is, therefore, proper that the service fee 
should be charged against the cow. In the middle west it 
costs about $30 per year to feed a sire. If 20 calves are 
sired annually, this would amount to $1.50 per calf, con- 
sidering also interest on the investment in sire, the deprecia- 
tion in value of the sire, the taxes, and the small percentage 
of loss In calves, the total charge for service fee Is placed 
at $2 per cow per year. 

These various items of expense vary under different con- 
ditions and according to the kind of dairy cows kept. The 
figures in the above statement and discussions refer to grade 
dairy cows. Pure-bred and registered dairy herds are 
necessarily more expensive to care for. There are more 
records to be kept. The Individuals In the herd are more 
valuable and more money Is invested. For this additional 
labor and Invested capital in pure-bred cattle the dairyman 
receives higher prices for the calves. The average price 
paid for a pure-bred calf up to one year old, coming from 
high-producing ancestors, is approximately $100 to $200. 
Some sell for a lower price. Others, again, sell for much 
more. 

The following data shows the fixed charges of keeping a 
cow per year, from Bulletin No. 145, Massachusetts station, 
by J. G. LIndsey: 

1. Barn for housing cow and feed (per cow)"-. $75.00 

Interest, taxes, depreciation, repairs and insurance, 
10% $ 7.50 

2. Value of cow $75.00 

Interest and taxes, 7% 5.25 

Depreciation, 15% 11.25 

3. Value of barn tools, dairy implements, and the like; 

per cow $7.62 

Interest and depreciation, 15% — , _ — 1.15 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 75 

4. Value of perishable tools and supplies, per cow (cards, 

brushes, record sheets, soap, salt, ice, bedding, veterinary 

service, etc.) 9.00 

5. Cost of pure-bred bull, per cow 4.00 

6. Care of cow and milk for one year 35.00 

$73.15 

Prof. Lindsey found that it cost on an average $90.04 to 
feed a dairy cow, 37.4 percent being the cost of grain and 
62.6 percent the cost of roughage. 

Fixed charges, other than feed, of keeping a dairy cow 
per year, as reported by Trueman in Bulletin No. 7Z, Con- 
necticut station, are as follows : 

Bedding, for one year $ 5.00 

Keep of bull, per cow 3.00 

Labor per year, per cow 33.60 

Interest on money invested in cow and barn 6.75. 

Taxes on cow and barn 1.25 

Insurance on barn .40 

Depreciation of cow (yearly) 13.00 

Light, heat, medicines, disinfectants, veterinary service, and ice 2.00 

$65.00 

The following is the fixed charge, not including feed, for 
keeping a dairy cow one year. Bulletin No. 2, New Hamp- 
shire station, by F. Rasmussen : 

Labor, per cow $32.33 

Milking $12.60 

Handling milk and cleaning utensils 2.73 

Care of cow 17.00 

Delivery of milk, per cow 7.18 

Housing, per cow 9.05 

Interest on $2000 barn @ 5% $100.00 

Taxes on buildings 15.90 

Insurance, 1-3% per year 5.00 

Repairs and depreciation, 3% on total value 60.00 

For twenty cows $180.90 

F'or one cow, per year $9.05 

Depreciation, per cow 8.91 

Bull service, per cow 3.79 

Taxes and interest, per cow ^ 4.55 



y^ larsen's farm dairying 



Veterinary services and medicine, per cow .87 

Bedding, per cow 4.00 

(About 18 bales shavings per cow per year $5.30, 

or about 200 bushels of sawdust @ 2 cents $4.00) 

Ice and fuel, per cow 2.17 

Perishable tools, utensils, and salt, per cow — .53 

Expense of cow testing association, per cow 1.40 

Total expenses of one cow per year $74.70 

Prof. Rasmussen found the cost of feed per cow to be 
$73.03. Cottonseed meal is valued at $32 to $36 per ton, 
bran $27 to $30, gluten $27 to $35, corn meal $22 to $33, 
mixed feed $30 to $33, Ajax flakes $31 to $36, dried beet 
pulp $27 to $28, timothy hay $15 to $20, mixed hay $15 to 
$18 per ton. 

Fixed charges, not including feed, of keeping a dairy cow 
per year, according to Minkler, 1909 report of New Jersey 
station, are as follows : 

Labor (one man for 13 cows) at $1.50 per day $43.00 

Bedding (one bale shavings for 20 cows per day) 5.29 

Stabling 5.00 

Interest, 5% on $100 (value of cow) 5.00 

Depreciation in value of cow, 10% per cow 5.00 

Bull ($200 at 5%, $10; cost of keep, $50), per cow . 1.93 

Average per cow per year $70.22 

Average per cow per day $0,192 

From the above study one may conclude that the feed cost 
represents about one-half of the expense of keeping a dairy 
cow. 

The late Director Voorhees of the New Jersey station 
calculated the cost of keeping a cow from a different view- 
point, as follows : 

STATEMENT 
Investment : 

Farm, 100 acres $7,500 

Dairy barn 1,000 

Dairy house 1.000 

Dairy apparatus 500 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IX THE DAIRV HERD // 

Dairy tools and implements 1,500 

Horses (three teams) 1,5C0 

Cows (40 @ $75 each) 3,C0a 

One bull 100 

$16,100 
Annual running expenses : 

Labor (3 men @ $500) in barns $1,500 

Labor (1 man and boy) in dairy 750 

Labor (3 men with teams) l.OCO 

Depreciation in value of horses, 10% 150 

Depreciation in value of cows, 10% 310 

Depreciation in value of tools, implements, etc 200 

Taxes, insurance, and depreciation in buildings 1:0 

One-half cost of feed 1,720 

$5,780 
Interest on capital @ 5% 805 

Total annual expense, includin:^^ interest $6,535 

No charge was included for all feed that is produced 
upon the farm, as this was accounted for by Including the 
expense of help and teams. 

He figures that 7500 pounds of milk is the average annual 
production of a dairy cow, and that 100 pounds of milk 
cost $2.20, and a quart 4.83 cents. No charge is made for 
supervision, the owner being considered a full hand. 
According to this, the total income from the milk of the 40 
cows would be $6750. 

-Esthetic Value 

There are certain highly valued characteristics in a dairy 
cow, indeed in any animal, aside from her ability to pro- 
duce. These qualities are difficult to name and describe. 
Cow owners usually have one or more cows in the herd 
which they especially favor. They are the pets. They are, 
many times, protected and cared for even in preference to 
other cows which are more valuable producers. These 
characteristics may be largely sentimental ; they may refer 
to her manner or ways, to her form, to her color, to her dis- 
position, production, intelligence and general beauty. 



78 larsen's farm dairying 

In some instances, this value is so great that it cannot be 
measured in terms of money. One cow of which the author 
knows is a small, nervous, alert and bright-eyed cow. She 
will fight any stranger who happens to walk into the yard. 
Her keeper, or those who are acquainted with her, can do 
almost anything with her. The owner takes a pride in this 
fighting quality, and he will not set a sales price on her. 

Other cows, again, are prized because of their gentleness. 
A certain man owned three cows which were so gentle that 
the children in the family used them as their playthings. 
The pasture was near the house and the three boys would 
ride them to and from pasture. The owner of these cows 
was wealthy and they could not be bought for any reason- 
able sum. Disposition in a cow often is of value. 

In some instances, an unusual color, or some other 
peculiarity, will appeal to the owner. 

It is not necessarily the most beautiful and symmetrical 
cow which has the greatest aesthetic value. Frequently it 
is the oldest and most homely cow on the place that is most 
highly prized. Usually this is because there is some senti- 
ment connected with her. Perhaps the cow was the first 
one owned by the dairyman. Maybe she supplied the 
family with milk and butter during specially hard times, 
and maybe this particular cow is the foundation of the 
owner's present whole herd. 

Undoubtedly the great majority of dairy farmers value 
their cows according to what money they can make from 
them. However, the aesthetic value should not be cast 
aside. Usually the economic and aesthetic value go together. 



VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 



79 



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An outline for studying the cost of milk production for city supply, proposed by 
the Maryland Counsel of Defense, Dr. A. F.Woods, chairman. 

f Cows in milk 
Dairy Animals \ Dry Cows 
Bulls 



PRODUCTION 



TRANSPOR- 
TATION . . 



PLANT. 



OPERA- 
TION 



Land 
Land & Bldgs. J Buildings. 



Equi 



Feeds. . . 
Bedding 
Labor . . 



Plant 

Overheads. 



Misc. Operat- 
ing Costs. . 



Railroad 
Motor-Truck 
Producer's 
[ Conveyance 



Barn 

Milk-house, etc. 
Silos, etc. 



■'Milking machines 
I Coolers 
J Engines 
\ Boilers 
j Cans 
*- Miscellaneous 



f Grain 

<! Roughage / Dry 

[ Miscellaneous \ Succulent 

f Supervision f Milking 

Feeding 

Day Labor -j Grooming 

Cleaning stables 
Miscellaneous 

f Interest 

Depreciation 
i Repairs & Maintenance 
I Insurance 
L Taxes 



Veterinary 
Misc. Supplies 
Delivery 
Miscellaneous 



DISTRIBU- 
TION 



PLANT. 



OPERA- 
TION 



f Land r Wago 

\ Buildings Horse 

[ Equipment . . . -{ Moto 



Wagons 
ses 

Vehicles 
I Machinery 
I Miscellaneous Supplies 



Superintendence 
Clerical 

"" Labor -{ Salesmen 

Skilled Labor 
Unskilled " 

Tee 

Fuel 

Supplies -J Bottles & Caps 

Office 
t Miscellaneous 



Plant 

Overheads. 



Miscellane 



Interest 
Depreciation 
Repairs & Maintenance 
Insurance 
t Taxes 

f Uncollectible bills 
\ Waste, etc. 



80 



CHAPTER V 

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH 
COW IN THE HERD 

From a business standpoint, the profitableness of a dairy 
cow depends largely upon the amount of milk and the 
amount of butter fat she produces. These, under average 
farm conditions, may be determined in two ways : 

1. By the appearance of the cow, or by judging the rela- 
tion of form to function. 

2. By weighing and testing the milk and keeping records 
of the amount and kind of feed consumed. 

Appearance of Cow 

This method is by no means an accurate one for deter- 
mining the production of a cow. At times, it is necessary, 
however, to resort to it — for instance, if a cow is offered 
for sale at a public auction", or any other place which does 
not afford opportunities for weighing and testing the milk. 
The owner's word cannot always be relied upon as to a 
cow's production, records of production of cov/s in the 
average dairy herds are not generally kept, many cow own- 
ers do not have the proper conception of what constitutes a 
profitable production, and some cow owners, in their en- 
thusiasm for getting a good price for a cow, will call a poor 
cow a good producer. 

If the buyer understands the chief points of a dairy cow, 
the points which indicate large, economical milk production, 
and can thus couple his knowledge with the statements of 
the seller, he is in a reasonably good position to select a 
profitable dairy cow. By this method he is at least able to 
distinguish a good cow from a poor one. He may not be 
able to choose the best cow from several cows producing 

ol 



82 larsen's farm dairying 

nearly an equal amount, but he can easily detect a large 
producing cow from a small producer. The desirable form 
of a dairy cow has been discussed in detail in connection 
with the score card. The following brief review, however, 
may not be out of place. 

Form indicating production. — The profitable dairy cow 
should be deep and wide of body. Especially should she 
have a deep and wide barrel. She should be wide and level 
in the hind quarters and broad and open of frame. This 
gives the cow a wedge shape, which is important in a dairy 
cow. The wedge shape so often referred to does not mean 
that a dairy cow should be narrow in the front quarters. 
She should have normal width and depth in front and 
should be unusually wide behind. Indeed, it is highly im- 
portant that a dairy cow should have abundant capacity in 
the front quarters. Some of the most vital organs of the 
cow, namely the heart and the lungs, are located here. A 
cow should have a large and full heart girth, and be deep 
and reasonably wide in the chest. A cow that is very nar- 
row in the chest region, that is depressed in the crops and in 
the fore flank back of the shoulder blade is, as a rule, not a 
cow that possesses a strong constitution. 

A deep, long and wide barrel, having an excellent cover- 
ing, indicates capacity to hold, and efficiency to digest, 
absorb, and assimilate feed. These are important requisites 
in a dairy cow. To be able to digest and assimilate a large 
amount of food is the first important requisite in the 
formation of milk. 

The skin should be loose and pliable. The hair, or cover- 
ing, should be short, smooth and downy. This indicates good 
blood circulation and ability to digest a large percentage of 
the food consumed. The outside skin is an extension of 
the lining of the digestive tract. This lining contains the 
glands which secrete the digestive juices. It is on account 
of this close relationship of the inside to the outside of a 
cow that quality of skin is of so much importance. 

The dairy cow must be able to carry these digested and 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 83 

absorbed nutrients to the udder, or to the seat of milk manu- 
facture. This ability is indicated by the size, branchiness, 
length and course of the blood veins on the abdomen of the 
cow. The size and number of milk wells and the kind and 
distinctness of the escutcheon, or milk mirror, are also 
important. The escutcheon should be wide and well defined. 
The milk veins should be large, long, crooked and branch- 
ing, especially near the udder, and the milk wells should be 
large and numerous. Such veins and wells indicate that a 
large amount of blood flows to the milk secreting glands. 
The blood carries the raw material from which the gland 
manufactures the milk. 

Probably the most important point of all in the form of 
a good dairy cow is a large, wide and long udder of good 
quality and shape. The mammary gland, or the machinery 
for the manufacture of milk, is located in the udder. The 
greater the capacity of the udder, the more machinery, or 
the more gland capacity for milk production, there is likely 
to be. The udders should be wide and long, extending well 
forward under the abdomen, and well back up between two 
flat and well separated thighs. The udder should be wide 
and level on the bottom and the teats pointing straight 
downward. The teats should not be too small. They 
should be evenly placed and not too close together. The 
udder should be of good quality. A fleshy, hard udder may 
be large w^hen empty. Such an udder does not indicate 
milk production capacity. Besides, a fleshy udder is pre- 
disposed to inflammatory diseases. 

The dairy cow should be symmetrical of build. She 
should have a clean-cut feminine appearance, large, bright 
eyes, broad forehead, slightly dished face, large nostrils 
and muzzle, an intelligent and lively appearing head set 
on a thin and medium long neck. A dairy cow should 
have a straight, prominent and open jointed backbone. The 
loins should not be drooping. They should be wide and 
reasonably level. 

Briefly speaking, these are the essential points indicating 



84 larsen's farm dairying 

capacity to produce a large quantity of milk. This form, 
however, does not necessarily indicate high quality, or rich- 
ness of milk. This latter is much more difficult, in fact 
impossible, to ascertain by the appearance of the dairy 
cow. A copious yellow skin secretion and an udder having 
considerable substance without being fleshy are said to in- 
dicate richness of milk. This secretion is most apparent 
on the inside of the ear and at the end of the tail bone. 
This yellow color is also apparent on the covering of the 
udder. A yellow or amber-colored hoof and horn are re- 
garded by some to be indicative of yellow milk and of rich 
milk. A soft downy hair covering the udder is also said 
to indicate richness of milk. On some cows this deep 
yellow color and yellow secretion are apparent on the 
surface of the skin all over the cow. 

To what extent these latter points can be accepted as a 
guide as to the color or richness of milk, the author is not 
prepared to state. It has been said that the breeders of 
Jersey and Guernsey cattle in their respective homes have 
used these points as guides or indications in selecting 
foundation or breeding stock to procure richness of milk. 
It is well known that these breeds as handed down to us 
excel in producing rich milk, rich not only in percent of 
butter fat, but also in total solids. 

Weighing and Testing Milk from Each Cow 

The only absolutely reliable method by which the pro- 
duction of every cow in the herd can be ascertained is to 
weigh and test the milk. No dairyman should fail to ke?p 
records of every member of the dairy herd. From observa- 
tions this method of keeping track of cows is gaining very 
rapidly. At first many dairy farmers objected to this 
method because of the additional detailed thoughts and 
attention. The amount of work and time necessary f?r 
making these records is slight, and still there are da'ry 
farmers dependent upon the cows for their total income 
who do not realize the importance of record keeping. This 



DETERMINIXG THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 85 

matter of weighing and testing the milk is a business propo- 
sition, and should receive the careful attention of every man 
who markets his field crops through the dairy cow. 

Manner of obtaining records. — Both to weigh and to test 
the milk from every cow after each milking would be 
laborious for the average dairy farmer. This method is 
not recommended except in case of official testing for ad- 
vanced registry, and in connection with experiment station 
work. Various experiments show that daily weighing and 
intermittent testing give about ninety-eight percent accurate 
results. 

The various breed associations accept tests from cows if 
the milk is weighed daily ; and weighed, sampled and tested 
two days out of each month. The weighing, sampling and 
testing during these two days is to be done by a man ap- 
pointed by the state experiment station. The weighing of 
the milk during the remainder of the month is done by the 
owner or the milker. No composite samples during these 
two days are accepted. Each milking must be sampled and 
tested separately. The results from such weighing and 
testing are termed semi-official tests. Such a test is usually 
made of pure-bred and registered cows only. 

Another method of testing cows is for the owner to 
weigh the milk daily from each cow. One day out of each 
month samples are taken from each cow's milk in the 
herd, and tested for percent of butter fat. The daily 
weighing is done by the owner or by the milker. The sam- 
pling and testing during the month maybe done bythe owner 
or the milker, or it may be done by some other person who is 
not directly interested in the herd. From a public stand- 
point, the latter would be the most authentic. However, 
the sampling and testing that are done by the owner are 
also reliable. No owner would seek to deceive himself or 
anybody else. If such were attempted, the very purpose 
of the weighing and sampling would be defeated. 

The sampling and testing of the milk from each cow 
may be done after each milking, or a composite sample 



B6 larsen's farm dairying 

made up from each of the milklngs durmg a day may be 
taken. In the latter case, it is necessary to test only one 
sample from each cow, while in the former case there 
would be as many samples to test as there are milkings 
from each cow. The composite sample method does away 
with considerable work. In case the tester is not expe- 
rienced in handling details, it may also do away with mis- 
takes. The composite sample method is the simplest. 

Even though the time required for the daily weighing of 
the milk from each cow is small, there are still some who 
do not like to apply themselves to that extent in obtaining 
records from the dairy herd. For this reason efforts have 
been made to simplify the weighing, sampling, testing and 
record-keeping still more. 

A very simple and yet satisfactory way to obtain records 
is to weigh, sample and test the milk from each cow only 
during one day out of each month. This is as simple a 
method as could possibly be practiced. If the cows are in 
normal condition during that one day in each month, this 
method gives reasonably accurate results. The method has 
the drawback that if some conditions should make the cow 
abnormal and the quantity and quality of milk given by 
the cow should not be normal, the results would not be ac- 
curate. On the average dairy farm, however, where heavy 
feeding is not done and the surroundings and conditions 
are quite uniform from day to day, this method of obtain- 
ing records of the dairy herd is simple and gives reasonably 
good satisfaction. 

The following is a copy of a record sheet for this method 
of weighing and testing: 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 87 

Daily Milk Records for the Month of 191 



Name of cow 














Date 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1. 


A. M. 
















P. M. 














2. 


A. M. 
















P.M. 

A. M. 














3. 
















P. M. 














29. 


A. M. 
















P.M. 














30. 


A.M. 
















P.M. 














31. 


A. M. 
















P.M. 














Total Milk 














% Fat 




1 








Lbs. fat 














Value of 
products 














Cost of 
feed 














Income above 
feed cost 















LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 







Name of Cow 


Name of Cow 


Name of Cow 




191_ 


J3 

s 








1-1 






4-> 




Q 




2-J 

o ^ 


w 


Oct 1 


A. M. 






P. M. 




























Nov. 3 


A.M. 




























P. M. 




























Dec. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Jan. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Feb. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Mar. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Apr. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























May 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























June 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























July 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Aug. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Sep. 1 


A. M. 




























P. M. 




























Total for year 
Value of products 
Value of feed 


~ 














































































Income abov 


e feed co?t 





























DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 



89 





1 


^ ' 


























■ 








































-^ 


*-• 


























i 






^ 
i 
































_1 


































^ 

s 






























^ 

































i 
































^ 






























































6 
E 




^ 
































^ 

S 






























c 




i 


^i. 
































^ 
^ 

































V 




■M 
C 

1 




3 
C 










3 
3 


5 


3 

3 

< C 


2 


D 






5 t 


Value of products 

Value of feed 

Income above feed cost 



90 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Composite samples. — The composite samples should be 
carefully taken and carefully kept. The person who does 
this work should be careful to obtain first a sample repre- 
senting the average quality from the whole milking. This 
is accomplished by thoroughly mixing the milk from each 
cow just before sampling. Secondly, the sampler should 
be careful to obtain a proportionate part of 
each milking so that when all of the 
samples from each milking are added to- 
gether in one bottle they represent the aver- 
age quality of the milk produced in all of 
the milkings, whether the sample is taken 
for two consecutive days or for one day. 




miK SCALE 





FIG. 35 — The 
use of the scales 
and the Bab- 
cock tester is 
th3 surest way 
of ascertaining 
the productive- 
ness of each 
cow in the herd. 




FIG. 36— Enclosed hand tester. 

A proportionate sample may be obtained 
by using a sampling tube, and in this con- 
nection a milk pail should be used that has 
the same diameter from top to bottom. It 
can readily be seen that if such a sample 
tube is used, and it is inserted to the bottom 
of the milk each time, the amount obtained 
is in proportion to the amount of milk given by the cow. 
For instance, if a cow gives 40 pounds of milk in the morn- 
ing and only 20 pounds of milk in the evening, the sample 
taken for the composite bottle should be twice as large in 
the morning as it is in the evening. 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 



91 




92 larsen's farm dairying 

Another method by which a proportionate composite 
sample may be obtained is to use a graduated measure. If 
a cow gives 20 pounds of milk to a milking, 20 cubic centi- 
meters may be taken out for the composite sample. If 
a cow gives 30 pounds of milk, 30 cubic centimeters may 
be taken for the composite sample. This method is prac- 
ticable when the diameter of the milk pail is not uniform. 

Some have persisted in obtaining samples of each milk- 
ing for the composite bottle by using a small dipper. By 
the use of a dipper one cannot judge as to the exact amount 
that should be obtained. Yet in many instances, the dipper 
method of obtaining samples gives accurate results. This 
is due to the fact that with some cows there is, practically 
speaking, no variation in the quantity of milk given from 
one milking to another, and there may not be any varia- 
tion in the quality. If the quality of the milk is the same 
from one milking to another, or if the quantity of milk is 
the same from one milking to another, no attention need 
be given to obtaining a proportionate sample. Experience 
has amply shown, however, that both the quantity and the 
quality of milk from a cow usually vary considerably from 
one milking to another. The safest way, then, for obtain- 
ing correct composite samples is to be careful, first, to 
obtain a sample that represents the average quality by 
thoroughly mixing the milk, and, secondly, to obtain a 
proportionate part of each milking. 

The effect of not obtaining a proportionate sample may 
be illustrated as follows : Supposing a cow gives in the 
morning 40 pounds of milk testing 3.2 percent. Then in 
the evening she gives 30 pounds of milk testing 4 percent. 

30 X 4.0 = 1.3 pounds butter fat. 
40 X 3.2 = 1.28 pounds butter fat. 



70 3.6 2.48 pounds butter fat. 



In case an equal amount, for instance, taken with a 
dipper, had been obtained for the composite sample from 
these two milkings, the average test for this particular 



DETERxMlNIXG THE PRODUCTION OT EACH COW 93 

month and for this particular cow would be the average of 
the above two tests on page 92, or 3.6 percent. 

By obtaining a proportionate sample of each milking, 
the test obtained would be the true average of the two 
milkings, or the same as is obtained by adding the fat to- 
gether and also the milk, and then dividing the fat by the 
milk and multiplying by 100. In this case, which is the cor- 
rect method, the average test for this cow's milk would 
be 3.5 percent. This makes a difference of about 0.1 per- 
cent. In some instances the difference between the morn- 
ing and night milkings is considerably greater. The greater 
such difference in quantity and quality, the greater the 
probability of obtaining errors in connection with sampling 
of milk from cows. 

If the composite sample represents milk from one day's 
sampling and the testing is done at once, then it is not 
necessary to add a preservative to the composite sample 
bottles. 

In case that the composite sample represents the milk 
from two or more days' samplings, a preservative should 
be added. 

Corrosive sublimate tablets and potassium bichromate are 
convenient and efficient preservatives to add. Indeed, any 
preservative, added in small amount, that is convenient and 
efficient may be used. Any of these preservatives is poi- 
sonous, and the samples should, therefore, be properly 
guarded. Corrosive sublimate tablets may be obtained at 
a nominal cost from any of the creamery supply houses. 
They are colored pink, so there is little danger that these 
samples will be mistaken for normal milk. 

There should be as many composite sample bottles as 
there are cows whose milk is to be sampled. These bottles 
may be conveniently placed on a shelf in the milk or weigh- 
ing room, or in some other convenient place near the place 
of weighing and sampling. These bottles should be labeled 
or numbered to correspond with each cow in the herd. 
The samples should be tightly covered to prevent evapora- 



94 larsen's farm dairying 

tion of moisture. Each time the milk sample is added, the 
composite bottle should be given a rotary motion. This 
mixes the preservative with the milk. It also mixes the 
newly added milk with that already in the bottle. 

When this composite sample from consecutive milkings 
has been obtained, it should be tested as soon as con- 
venient. The longer the testing is delayed, the more the 
sample is likely to dry out, and the more difficult it will 
be to get it properly mixed, before the sample for the Bab- 
cock test is measured out. If the cream has risen and a 
ring adheres to the inside of the bottle, the sample should 
be placed in warm water. This will loosen the cream 
adhering to the bottle. 

Testing the samples for fat. — After being assured that 
the milk is thoroughly mixed, the sample, 17.6 cubic centi- 
meters, is measured out with a pipette and transferred into 
the testing bottle. To this is added 17.5 cubic centimeters 
of commercial sulphuric acid having a specific gravity of 
1.82. This acid is slowly and carefully added, then mixed 
at once with the milk. The acid digests all the milk solids 
except the butter fat. The amount of acid varies some 
according to the temperature of the milk and acid, com- 
position of the milk, and the strength of the acid. As soon 
as the acid and milk have been thoroughly mixed the color 
of the mixture should be dark coffee. 

The bottles containing this milk and acid mixture are 
then whirled for five minutes in the centrifuge; then filled 
with hot soft water to the base of the neck, and whirled 
again for two minutes. The machine is again stopped and 
the bottles filled with soft hot water to such a point in the 
neck as to permit of convenient reading of the fat. The 
bottles are then whirled one minute more. 

The measuring of the butter fat is usually accomplished 
by using a pair of dividers. One point of the dividers is 
fixed at the bottom and the other one at the top of the fat 
column. The operator then carefully removes the dividers, 
placing the lower point of the dividers at the zero mark. 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 



95 



/o- 



9- 



the upper part of the dividers reaching up on the scale 
showing the percent and fraction of a percent of butter 
fat the milk contains. There are 10 main divisions on the 
scale, and each one is equal to one percent. Each whole 
percent is subdivided into five parts, making each sub- 
division equal to 0.2 percent. The fat column is read ivzm 
the bottom to the top of the meniscus. 

Care should be taken that the test is read at once after 
whirling before the fat coo^s and congeals. 

In cold weather the last whirling should be short, other- 
wise the thin column of fat is likely to chill. The testing 
should not be done in a cold room. How- 
ever, should it be necessary to test in a cold 
room, hot water may be added to the tester, 
and the hand machine may also be thor- 
oughly heated by placing it on the stove 
before the testing operation is begun. 

For rules governing the testing of cows 
for advanced registry the readers are re- 
ferred to pamphlets published by the vari- 
ous dairy cattle breeders' associations. 
These are sent free of charge upon request. 

To determine the profit derived from 
each cow, it is necessary to weigh the feed 
each cow consumes. The grain at least 
should be weighed. This will be referred 
to again under the feeding of a dairy cow. 

Cow testing associations. — No matter 
how simple the method of obtaining records 
of cows, some labor and attention to 
details are necessary. Many farmers 
object to the weighing and testing of the 
milk on this account. To minimize this 
work, to put it into the hands of a special- 
ist, to have it done systematically, and as 
cheaply as possible, cow testing associations 
organized. 



/ 






-A 



K 



FIG. 38 — Read 
from bottom of 
f-'t column to top 
of column, or 
from A to B. 

have been 



95 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Cow testing associations originated in Denmark. In this 
little country there are now over 500 associations working 
successfully. Each one consists of a variable number of 
dairy farmers living in one community. These dairy farm- 
ers go together to form an association, governed by rues 
and by-laws on which they mutually agree. The offxers of 
the association hire a man to travel from place to pla:e 
to weigh and test the milk produced by each cow in the 
various herds, and also to weigh the feed consumed by 
each cow in the various herds, and make detailed records 
of same. This official tester usually tests the cows in one 
herd only, each day. If there are two small herds close 
together, he may weigh and test the milk for two farmers 




FIG. 39 — Cow tester and his outfit. Dnvent»ort, la., cow testinj? association. 
(Courtesy Hoard's Dairyman.) 



in one day. It is, therefore, evident that there is room 
for only about 25 different farmers in one cow testing 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 97 

association, since there are about 26 working days in each 
month. 

When the tester has obtained records from one farmer's 
herd, he is taken to the next dairy farmer, and so on till 
he has made a complete circuit of all of the members. The 
following month this same circuit is made, and so on for 
every month. 

In some instances this cow tester has a conveyance of his 
own. In other instances each farmer agrees to take him 
to the next place. 

The first cow testing association was organized in 1895, 
near Askov, Denmark. The cow testing associations in 
the United States are modeled after those in that country, 
although conditions in the United States are different from 
those in Denmark. The United States is a very large 
country, representing many different conditions under 
which dairy farming is carried on. For these reasons, 
the manner of carrying out the work of a cow testing as- 
sociation varies somewhat in the United States. Three 
hundred and forty-six cow testing associations are now 
working successfully in the United States, and new ones 
are constantly being formed. Wisconsin leads with 51. 

The first cow testing association in the United States was 
organized near Fremont, Michigan, in 1905. 

Probably most of the cow testing associations in this 
country are self-supporting. The average cost to the dairy 
farmers to have their cows tested through a cow testing 
association is about $1.50 per cow each year. The cost 
varies with the number of cows in the association and the 
cost to maintain a man and officers to operate it. Where 
conditions are very favorable, the cost per cow does not 
exceed $1 p:r y^ar. 

In portions of the central and northwestern United States, 
where dairy farming is not carried on intensively, a flat 
rate has been found to work more successfully than a cer- 
tain charge per cow. The author noAv speaks especially of 



98 larsen's farm dairying 

South Dakota conditions. Where a certain charge is made 
per cow, there is a tendency for the owner to agree to put 
into his herd more cows than he actually tests. Towards 
the end of the year he may sell one or more of the cows 
entered, and some of the cows he intended to enter in the 
association are not tested at all. Such a dairy farmer nat- 
urally wishes to get out of paying for some of the cows 
entered. By paying so much per head, the money is not 
usually paid up at the time the association is started. This 
makes it rather difficult to finance the association. 

If the flat rate method is used, there is little difficulty 
in continuing the association and in getting the proper finan- 
cial support. At the time the association is organzied the 
owner's note is taken for the full amount. Arrangements 
can usually be made with the local banker to cash these 
notes at any time. No note should be accepted that is not 
good at the bank. The flat rate may not be more than $20. 
Under South Dakota conditions $25 to $40 per dairy farmer 
is needed. If there are about 26 members in the association 
this levy will bring an annual income of $650 to $1040. This 
amount is necessary to conduct the association. Usually the 
tester receives from $50 to $80 per month and expenses 
while on the route testing. 

Experience has shown that the farmers do not like to 
consume time to take the tester from one place to an- 
other. Better results are obtained by equipping the man 
with horse and buggy. The farmers do not object to feed- 
ing the horse, but in many instances they dislike to be 
troubled with having to transfer the tester and his outfit. 

At the close of the year this tester, on the basis of the 
data obtained, sums up the production of each cow, and the 
food consumed by each cow. These results are recorded 
in permanent books. The monthly production, consump- 
tion of food, and profit or loss from each cow, together 
with other data for the year, may be obtained from these 
records at any time. Debit and credit sides are kept for 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 



99 



each cow, and the difference between the two determines 
whether the cow had been kept at a loss or at a profit. 

The number of cow testing associations in the United 
States by states on July 1st, 1916, is shown in the follow- 
ing table (Dairy Division, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) : 





Years. 




Name of state 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


Michigan 

Maine 


1 


4 


2 
3 

1 


5 
4 
1 
2 
2 
1 
9 
1 


4 

3 
3 
8 
5 
3 


1 
1 
1 


3 
6 
9 

10 
4 
2 

1) 

1 
1 

1 
4 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 


4 

5 

IS 
11 

8 
4 

8 

2 
2 

3 
3 
1 
7 
1 
1 

2 

2 


4 

4 

21 

17 

7 
4 
11 

3 
1 
2 

\ 

2 

10 
1 
1 

2 

I 

2 

1 


3 

5 

29 

28 

8 

5 

24 

2 

1 

7 

4 

2 

7 

9 
4 
7 
1 
3 

1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 


3 
8 

35 

33 

13 
7 

37 
3 


14 
5 
4 
3 
1 

11 
8 

11 
1 


1 
3 

1 
3 
1 
3 


1 
1 


10 
11 

47 

3S 

23 

9 

51 

4 



19 

23 

7 

3 

12 

22 

11 

15 



4 

2 

1 
7 
1 
2 
4 
3 
6 


3 

2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 


15 

5 


New York 






43 








47 


Iowa 








30 










15 


Wisconsin 








81 


Nebraska 








4 


Colorado 








3 












21 


Ohio 










33 


Maryland 










8 














17 


Washington . . . 










1 


18 












26 


NewHampshire 
Oregon . . . 












12 












17 


Utah 












1 


Massachusetts . 












4 














4 


ICansas 












4 


Indiana . . 
















9 


















1 


Missouri .... 
















5 




















8 






















Connecticut . . 


















3 


N.Carolina.... 





















Louisana 







































3 


Nevada 


















1 


Arizona 




















2 


Rhode Island. . 






















2 


Delaware 






















3 


Idaho 






















1 


Mississippi . . 

























Montana 






















2 
























8 


New Mexico 






















1 


























1 


Total 


1 


4 


6 


25 


40 


64 


82 


100 


163 


211 


346 


459 



Value of dairy herd records. — The first and chief value 
accruing from keeping records of milk and butter fat pro- 
duced and food consumed by each cow is that it shows 
which cows are good producers and which are poor pro- 
ducers. The poor cows can then be culled out and the 
female offspring from only the good cows can be retained. 



100 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



This record keeping is then a basic guide to intelligent, 

successful breeding and selection. 

Secondly, by means of these records the owner is enabled 

to obtain higher prices for his young stock. He can point 

out the superior- 
ity of certain 
animals of the 
herd and the in- 
feriority of 
others, and there- 
by demonstrate 
to the prospective 
buyer the value 
of a good dairy 
cow and the im- 
portance of se- 

FIG. 40 — The poorest producing cow in the < • i 

Black Hi;is cow testing association. South Dakota. ICCtmg gOOQ prO- 
Milk 2S93 lbs., fat 88 lbs. ^^^^-^^^ p ^ ^ ^^^^ 

and ancestors. In this manner the breeder is able to obtain 
a large price for his good young stock. There is a great 
demand for female offspring from cows having good records. 





FIG. 41 — The highest producint? cow in the Black Hills cow 
testing association, South Dakota. Milk 7129 lbs., fat 330 lbs. 

Thirdly, the feeder is able to feed the various individuals 
in the herd properly. If no records were kept of the 
produce, there is a strong probability that all of the cows 



DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 



101 



in the herd would be fed nearly alike. By keeping records, 
each cow can be fed grain to correspond to the amount of 
milk and fat produced. 

Fourthly, the feeder is able to detect the approach of 
sickness of the cow. When sickness approaches, the cow 
will show it first in a decrease in the amount of milk given. 
She may also show it in a loss of appetite. Oftentimes it 
means much to be able to detect a sickness at the beginning. 
It may often prevent prolonged sickness and even the loss 
of the animal. If a disease is attended to in time, it is much 
easier to cure than if it is allowed to develop. 

Fifthly, the owner is enabled to judge the work of the 
milker. Large variations in the amount of milk from one 
milking to another indicate irregularities of the milker or 
of the cow. 

Besides, there is the personal satisfaction of knowing 
what each cow in the herd is doing. System in any work 
is not only remunerative and convenient, but it is satisfying. 



ADVANCED REGISTRY REQUIREMENTS (lbs.) 



Tatle showing advanced 


registry 


requirements for the different breeds of dairy 










cattle. (lbs.) 










Ayrshire 


Brown Swiss 


Cuern'y 


Holstein 


Jersey 




c >> 


>> 


." 


>. 


- 




. 






Ages 


^-^ 


.£-5 


^-^ 


.s-3 


.5-5 


S X 


•S-S 


.S>. 


.s-5 




m^) 

•^•o 

.^c^ 


f^S 




B 


a 




a 




a 


2 yr. Sr! 


6000 


250. S 






250.5 


7.2 


2SU.5 


12. 


250.5 


6500 


268.8 


6000 


111. 












Jr. 


7000 


287.1 






287. 


8.8 


287. 






3 yr. Sr. 


7500 


305.4 


6429 


238.4 








12. 


287. 


4yr.^^: 


8000 


323.7 






323.5 


10.4 


323.5 


12. 


323.5 


8500 


342. 


7286 


271.3 












5yr. 


9000 


360. 


8143 


304.1 


360. 


12. 


360. 


12. 


360. 


6yr. 






9000 


337. 













CHAPTER VI 
INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 

When the owner has tested the cows in the herd and gets 
the data systematicahy recorded, he is in a position to 
improve effectively and systematically the production, and 
therefore, the profitableness of his herd. 

The improvement of the dairy herd may conveniently be 
divided into two heads. 

1. Improvement of present dairy herd. 

(a) Culling of poor cows. 

(b) Keeping up good feed and care. 

2. Improvement of the future dairy hsrd. 

(a) By buying good cows. 

(b) By raising good cows. 

Improvement of Present Dairy Herd 

Cull poor cows. — The author thoroughly believes in 
giving every cow an opportunity to prove herself worthy of 
at least paying for her feed and care. This, many cows do 
not do. 

For various reasons some cows may not be economical 
producers one year and yet the following year and succeed- 
ing years they prove to be profitable animals. For instance, 
some heifers are not large producers. They develop late, 
but after they have had two or three calves they become 
excellent cows. Others, again, will do well during the first 
year and then during the second lactation period they be- 
come poor producers. It is not uncommon at all for heifers 
to have an off year after the second freshening. This may 
be due to a change of teeth, causing their appetite to be 
poor. It may be due to overworking the heifer during her 
first lactation period, and it may be due to incidental and 
uncertain causes. 

102 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 



103 




FIG. 42— A scrub cow. No. 9, 



condition. 



To illustrate the importance of culling out poor cows, 
suppose a man owns 10 cows, and it costs $40 to keep each 
cow a year, or $400 to keep the whole herd a year. By 

keeping such rec- 
ords as previ- 
ously referred to, 
it is found that 
four of these 
cows s h o w a 
gross income of 
$v35 per year, or 
a loss per cow of 
$5. These cows 
would cause a 
loss, then, of 
ahout $20. By 
culling out these 
four unprofitable cows, the $20 annual loss would be in- 
creasing the profits of the remaining six cows. The total 
profit would then be $420 from six cows instead of $400 
from 10 cows. 
This would equal 
an annual profit 
per cow of $70 
after culling, in- 
stead of an an- 
nual average 
profit per cow of 
$40 before cull- 
ing. A few poor 
cows reduce the 
profits from the 
good cows. As a 
rule,, the dairy 
farmer should fatten and sell such poor cows to the butcher, 
or dispose of them to one who does not milk or who raises 
cattle for beef purposes. 




FIG. 43— Scrub cow. No. 9, one year later. Note 
improved condition. (la. Exp. Sta.) 



104 

Good feed and care. — As will be discussed more in 
detail later, a dairy cow uses her feed for two principal 
purposes : first, to maintain the body, and secondly, for 
milk production. In some instances, cows do not receive it 
regularly and the feeds are not properly balanced. 

In some cases, the dairy herd is not properly cared for. 
At times the dairy herd is forced to "rustle" for feed in 
the snowy cornstalk field during the coM weather. In 
other instances, they are compelled to go into hilly and 
rough-land pastures where it is necessary for them to 
"rustle" a great deal in order to obtain feed. Under such 
circumstances cows do not receive enough nourishment to 
maintain the body and produce milk a' so. 

Some cows are forced to drink ice cold water and to 
remain out of doors a good share of the time during 
extremely cold weather. 

It has been demonstrated under practical farm condi- 
tions, and also in various experiment stations, that the kind 
of care and feed received has much to do with the amount 
of production, as well as with economical production from 
the dairy herd. 

At the Cornell station (Bull. 222) Prof. Wing found 
that a properly selected ration improved the yield of milk 
and butter fat from a herd of cows about 50 percent over 
the production of these same cows kept on a farm during 
the preceding year. 

At the Maryland station this point was carefully studied. 
Two lots of cows were used in the experiment. There were 
eight cows in each lot. One lot was fed grain throughout 
the year, while the other lot was not fed any grain at ad 
during pasture season. The object was to feed one lot well 
and the other lot sparingly. During the experimental period 
the grain-fed lot produced 27 percent more milk than did 
the lot that received no grain. During the following season, 
when both lots were treated in the same manner, the lot that 
received grain during the previous season produced 16 
percent more milk than did the other lot. This increase in 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 



105 







' 


( 




i: 


r 


gM 


1 



FIG. 44— Scrub cow No. 6. Production 2742.1 lbs. 
milk, 131.04 lbs. of fat. (la. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 188.) 



production was laid to the extra feed these cows received 

during the previous season. 

The Iowa station found that good feed and care improve 

the milk production of common cows 59 percent, and fat 

production about 
54 percent. These 
and many other 
examples amply 
show the impor- 
tance of good 
feed and care. 

The a V e rage 
cow utilizes 
about one-half 
for milk produc- 
tion. If the feed 
is cut down, it 
can readily be 

seen that this will be at the expense of milk production 

chiefly. If this scantiness of feed is prolonged, or if the 

feed shortage is cut down still more, eventually the cow will 

be getting no 

more feed than is 

needed for main-. 

taining the body, 

and very little or 

no milk will be 

produced by the 

cow. Every cow 

has a certain abil- 
ity to transform 

feeds into dairy 

products proflt- 

ably. Every 

owner should carefully study the characteristics of each 

cow so as to find the limits of a cow's ability to convert feeds 

into dairy products profitably. It is with the cow as it is 




PXG 45 — Sc-ub eow No. 6 three months later. 
Production milk 5556. fat 244.79. (la. Exp. Sta.) 



106 larsen's farm dairying 

with almost any other machine. A threshing machine has a 
limit to its abihty. It is of no use to keep the threshing 
machine running at full speed without feeding it what it will 
properly handle. On the other hand, one must be careful 
not to overfeed it. 

Good management. — The production of the present 
dairy herd may be materially increased by proper manage- 
ment and greatly decreased by improper management. 

It is important that dairy cows freshen regularly, and 
that the proper time is allowed for each lactation period. 
A cow should freshen regularly each year. The length of 
time may vary some according to the individual cow. A 
cow probably should not be mated till about two or three 
months after freshening. No one can have a cow freshen 
exactly once each year, but on an average, throughout a 
cow's life, one calf each year gives the best results. 

It is usually considered economical to give about six 
weeks* rest previous to freshening. While a cow during 
these six weeks is not producing any profit, it is generally 
considered that she will develop a stronger calf, that she 
will accumulate considerable strength, and store up a 
dynamic force for milk production to repay amply for let- 
ting her be dry that length of time. 

Fall freshening. — The annual production of a dairy cow 
may be improved by having her freshen in the fall instead 
of in the spring. This is in no way due to the cow, but is 
due to seasonal conditions and surroundings that exist in 
most parts of the United States. According to the author's 
investigations, under the average farm conditions, the aver- 
age dairy cow will produce about 20 percent more milk and 
butter fat when freshening in the fall than she will when 
freshening in the spring. Some cows will increase the pro- 
duction by fall freshening considerably more than this. 

Most cows are kept in pasture during the summer, and 
most cows on the average dairy farm freshen during the 
spring. During the early spring months, when the cow is 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 107 

fresh, the pastures as a rule contain plenty of fe^d, and 
cows will give the maximum flow of milk. Later pastures 
dry up, and heat and mosquitoes and flies make the cows 
uncomfortable. As a consequence, the mi'k flow from ths 
dairy cow freshening in the spring gradually decreases. 
Such a cow goes dry early, or gives very little milk when 
fall or winter conditions begin. 

A cow that freshens in the fall will yield a normally good 
flow of milk under winter conditions. When spring comes 
and the cow is turned on grass, the flow of milk is materi- 
ally increased. 

It will thus be seen that fall freshening lengthens the 
lactation period and causes a uniformly large flow of milk 
throughout a greater period than if the cow freshened in 
the spring. 

Second, better labor at less wage may be had during the 
winter months. Raising the crops during the summer and 
having the cows convert these crops into dairy and animal 
products during the winter enables the farmer to keep his 
help busy throughout the year and to make the farm a 
factory for producing new wealth the full year. 

Third, the price of dairy products is usualV considerably 
higher during the winter months. The farmer should aim 
to produce the greatest bulk when prices are th^ highest. 
Usually butter fat is one-third higher during the winter 
months. 

Fourth, the calves dropped in the fall are easier to raise 
than are those born in the spring. Fall calves do well under 
proper winter feed and care. When spring comes, they are 
from six to eight months old and may then be weaned and 
turned to pasture with the other young stock. Calves 
dropped in the spring need to be kept in or near the barn 
during the summer. During this time it is more difficult to 
keep the milk of uniform quality and the heat and flies are 
likely to bother the young calves considerably. 



108 larsen's farm dairying 

Improvement of Future Dairy Herd 

There are two methods by which the future dairy herd 
may be improved in production. One is to buy good cows, 
and the other is to raise them. Which one of these methods 
is followed, or whether a combination of these two methods 
is followed, depends somewhat on conditions, and whether 
a person wishes to grow into the business. 

Buy good cows. — If a person wishes to go into the dairy 
business quicker than he can by raising a herd, the buying 
of good dairy cows is probably the only way to start. 

This method involves considerable capital. The owner 
of a good dairy cow is loath to sell her unless he receives 
an unusually high price for her. However, good cows are 
occasionally offered for sale at a reasonable price, and the 
alert dairyman, especially if he is a good judge of cows, can 
usually pick up a few profitable dairy cows in almost any 
neighborhood, especially if he lives in a community where 
dairying has been practiced for some time. A good grade 
dairy cow considered to be a profitable producer is now 
selling at a price of about $100. 

It can readily be seen that this method is applicable to 
only a few. There would not be enough good cows to go 
around, if all farmers should wish to practice this method 
of improving the dairy herds. 

One point on which every purchaser of dairy cows should 
be careful is the danger of buying animals having some 
contagious disease. Tuberculosis, abortion, skin diseases, 
and other diseases of more or less significance, may be 
easily brought into his otherwise healthy herd. It is true 
that a buyer can purchase subject to inspection, but even 
then he may import animals with contagious diseases. 
Diseases may be present in an incipient or beginning stage 
and in a latent condition. If one resorts to buying dairy 
cows, he should be careful to obtain good cows, and not buy 
dairy cows just because they are colored like cattle belong- 
ing to some of the leading dairy breeds. 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 109 

. The author has known Instances where there has been 
considerable sentiment for the purchase of dairy cattle. 
Some local stock buyer or local speculator goes east into the 
dairy districts and picks up culls of dairy-bred animals. 
In some instances, they are taken out of the stockyards of 
smaller towns in the dairy districts. Such animals can usu- 
ally be bought cheap. While they may be colored like dairy 
cattle, they are generally poor producers. 

At times representatives of a certain group of purchasers 
have been sent into dairy districts. These men may or may 
not know what constitutes a good dairy cow. They are 
men who probably have never had anything to do with 
dairy animals. They are good, substantial, reliable men, 
but outside of that, they know little about the dairy busi- 
ness. Such men are not likely to get the best dairy cow 
value for the money invested. 

Again, dairy cows are selected by capable, disinterested 
men such as the local county agricultural agent. Such a 
person knows the different herds in a particular community. 
He is probably a man who has had considerable training in 
the judging of cows. Such a man is, or should be, capable 
of selecting the best dairy cows in a community, whether it 
be locally, or away from home. 

As a rule, it is not a good plan to buy full aged cows. 
Few dairymen will sell a distinctly good cow in her prime 
of life. The purchase of good young cows or heifers, 
properly bred and reared, at a reasonable price, is a good 
investment. 

Using a good dairy sire. — Every good producing family 
of cows owes its good dairy characteristics to two things : 
first, to heredity, and secondly, to good feed and care. Both 
factors are important, but since it is impossible with the 
best of feed and care to make an ordinary cow without 
dairy inheritance a large producing animal, it is evident 
that the right blood is even of greater importance than is 
the care and feed. There must be a natural predisposition 
in the animal to convert feed economlcallv into milk and 



110 larsen's farm dairying 

butter fat. A cow is a vehicle for carrying the combined 
characteristics of the ancestors, be they good or bad, desir- 
able or undesirable. AA'hat is not in the ancestors of the 
individual cannot come out in the descendants. True it is 
that occasionally there are individual large producing cows 
coming from ancestors not noted for their large production. 
This is due to the law of natural variation. Such cases are 
exceptions and not the rule. The dairy farmer who desires 
large and profitable producing cows cannot afford to follow 



FIG. 46— Scrub dam "Laura." Record 3427 lbs. milk and 147.4 lbs. fat in 
259 days. Weight 1320 lbs. (So. D^i^. Exp. Sta.) 

a method which is not reasonably sure to increase the pro- 
duction of his future dairy herd. 

The statement has often been made that the sire is half 
of the herd. This applies especially when the future herd 
is kept in mind. For the present herd, the one great func- 
tion of the sire is to cause the cows to freshen. For the 
future herd, his duty is to improve the ofifspring in type and 
production and to unify the type. 

Considering that the sire is pure-bred, of good type, and 



INCREASING FRODUCTION OF DAIRY IIILRD 



1:1 



that he comes from a long line of high-producing ancestors, 
he should have more than half of the effect on the offspring. 
The common grade cows offer but little resistance to 
improvement by the use of a pure-bred dairy sire. 

It is now well known that the milking qualities of the 
female are hereditary, even as much as is the color. It is 




FIG. 47— Holstein dauerhter c<" "L-ura." P.— or-i e2n lbs. milk and 230 
lbs. fat in 291 day.. Weight 1380 lbs. 



''Aagn'e Cornucopfa Jo- 
hanna Lad 32554 
59 ARO daughters 



Sir Cornucop'a Pr'nce 48663 ■{ 
Dropped Dec. 20, 1906 
6 ARO daughters 

1 over 29 Ihs. butter in 7 days 

2 sons with AEO daughters 

Siro of above eow 



Small Hope's Plebe 79030 
Record: 707.6 lbs. milk. 

30.8 lbs. butter in 7 

days 
2597 lbs. milk. 120.6 lbs. 

butter in 30 days 



Johanna Aaggie Sarcastic Lad 

26935 
5 ARO daughters 



Aaggle Cornuc^nla Pauline 
48426 
A world's record 4 vr. old and 
mature cow--34..'^2 lbs. but- 
ter, (!59.2 lbs. milk 



Grac'e Ward Plebe 31: 
16 ARO daughters 



Small Hope's Netherland 32622 

17.5 lbs. butter in 7 days 



also well known that the ability to produce milk and butter 
fat can be transmitted through the male as well as through 
the female. According to data given bv Dean Davenport 
of Illinois, the sire is even stronger than is the dam to 



112 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



transmit the milk production to the female offspring. This 
is probably accounted for by the fact that the male is 
usually better and more carefully selected as to the right 
blood or as to dairy inheritance. 




FIG. 48 — Jersey dau?ht°r of "Laura." RecoH 3^47 lbs. milk. 178 lbs. 
fat in 305 days. Weight 1090 lbs. 



Loretta's Dakota King 81092 

Dropped Dec. 12, 1907 



Sire of above cow 



Loretta's King 65050 



Hector's Fairy Belle . 
179909 '^ 

Kecord as 3 yr. old: 

18.62 lbs. butter in 7 

da.vs 
Private test: 20.3 lbs. 
Yearly record 10.027 los. 

milk. 681.1 lbs. butter 
Held record for Jersey 

with second calf. 721 

lbs. butter 



Loretta's Kinq rf St. Lambert's 
King 

Xo. 9 in R. AI. 



Loretta D. 141703 

Champion at World's Fair, St. 

Louis 
61.9 lbs. milk in 1 day; 9214 7 

lbs. milk. 490.12 lbs. butter 

in 187 days 



Hester riar'qold 59I2I 
11 in R. M. 



Fairy Pellanna I456P8 

Record as 3 yr. old: 19 lbs. 

butter, 7 days 
As a matiu-e cow, 3.53 -b*:. 

milk and 22.20 lbs. tiittcr. 

7 days 



The chief functions of a dairy sire may be summarized 
as follows ; 



INCREASING IRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 



113 



1. To cause cows to freshen. It is well known that 
freshening causes a cow to renew her flow of milk. Ma- 
ternity is the chief cause of milk formation. In the past, 
many sires have been kept for this one purpose alone. 

2. To perpetuate its kind without regard to quality. 
Some people in the past have thought that a cow is a cow, 
and that a calf is a calf. Very little weight has been given 
to the kind of a sire, thinking that one sire will cause a cow 
to conceive just as well as any other one. 

3. To improve the production of the offspring. This 
applies to the male calves as well as to the greater amount 
of milk and butter fat obtained from the female offspring. 




J^lG. 49- 



-A well-t^elected dairy sire for such a dairy herd will prove of 
great value. 



4. To improve and unify the type, size and markin-^s. 
There is no reason why beauty and utility cannot be com- 
bined. There is no reason why the individuals in the herd 
cannot be of uniform size, or cannot be of the same color. 
Such a herd imparts evidence of having been intelligently 
produced. Such a herd appears well to the stranger, who 
may be a buyer. When it comes to the selling of such a 
herd, the demand will be great and the price will be corre- 
spondingly high. 

The improvement of the herd by the elimination of 



114 larsen's farm dairying 

impure blood, from the standpoint of breeding and by con- 
tinuing with a pure-bred sire belonging to a certain breed, 
is fundamental to increased production. 

From the standpoint of production and from the stand- 
point of appearance, the females having four or more 
crosses of pure-bred blood are as good as is a pure-bred 
registered cow. Except in a few of the new cattle organiza- 
tions, a high grade cannot be registered. 

Value of a good dairy sire. — It is difficult to calculate 
the value of a good dairy sire as compared with that of a 
poor one. The following method, proposed by Prof. Fraser 
of Illinois, may serve to show that a good prepotent dairy 
sire is a good investment for the dairyman, even though the 
initial cost seems a little high. 

Scrub Pure-bred 
s.re B'.re 

Initial cost of sire $ 25 $125 

Interest at 8%, 3 years 6 30 

Cost of keeping 3 years at $40 120 120 

Total expense for 3 years $151 $275 

Estimated value at end of 3 years 54 54 

Total cost of providing sire for three crops of calves $97 $221 

Granting that the average herd numbers 20 cows, there 
would be 60 calves during three years. The cost of provid- 
ing a scrub sire for 60 calves would be $1.62 ($97-f-60). 

The cost of providing a good pure-bred dairy sire for 
each calf is ^3.68 ($221 -^$60). 

Thus far, the cost of providing a pure-bred sire for each 
calf is $2.05 greater than the cost of providing a common 
grade sire for each calf. The maxim that "Some hold the 
penny so close to the eye that the dollar cannot be seen in 
the distance," applies here. The economy of providing a 
good dairy sire is not realized until the female calves 
freshen. The male calves can easily be disposed of at a 
good price. So it is not considered advisable to limit the 
cost of providing a good sire to the females alone. 

If a pure-bred sire has been properly selected, h2 should 
increase the production of the heifer-offspring over that of 



INCREASING TRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 115 

the dam by not less than 20 percent. In some instances, 
experimental data shows that the sire may increase the pro- 
duction of the heifer-offspring over that of the dam's by 
100 percent. As the herd is graded up, it is evident that 
the percentage of increase in production decreases. The 
poorer, or less the production of the dam, the greater will 
be the percentage of increase in production of the female 
offspring. This does not mean that one should select poor 
producing cows with which to mate the pure-bred sire. 
When stated in percent, however, a greater relative in- 
creased production is usually obtained from low-producing 
cows. 

Paternal ances"::ors. — There seems to be no definite knowl- 
edge as to which one of the parents is the most prepotent i"i 
the transmission of the dairy characteristics. This depends 
more on the individual inbred characteristics than it does 
on sex. Generally speaking, the individual representing the 
largest production of the female ancestors, and dairy pre- 
potency of male ancestors, is the most powerful in the 
transmission of dairy characteristics. From these stand- 
points, pure-bred dairy sires have been better selected than 
cows. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that the males 
are of greatest importance. Considering the great inlluence 
of the sire upon both the production and type of the future 
herd, great care should be exercised in the selection of the 
herd bull. 

A tried dairy sire that is known to have sired uniformly 
large producing cows is very desirable. Many times an 
aged herd bull is discarded too early. 

In most instances the herd bull is selected while young. 
It is in this connection that it is important to select 
ancestors, especially near ancestors of large production and 
of good type. 

The dairy prepotency of the bull, undoubtedly, not only 
depends on the productiveness of the ancestors, but also on 
the skill with which the blood has been combined, whether 
the individual has been inbred or line-bred, or whether 



larsen's farm dairying 




INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 117 

there have been continuous indiscriminate out-crosses in the 
pedigree. Theoretically, the closer an individual is inbred, 
the more prepotent he is. This prepotency is manifested in 
transmitting poor qualities as well as good qualities. In- 
breeding fixes both good and bad characteristics. For this 
reason, inbreeding is dangerous to the inexperienced 
breeder. To the skillful and judicious breeder, inbreeding 
is a valuable aid to attain certain characteristics in the 
offspring. 

In the summer of 1908 the author began a breeding 
experiment with six common grade cows. These six cows 
were mixtures of Shorthorn, Hereford and unknown scrub. 
One probably had some Red Polled blood in her. She was 
a natural muley. The original plan was to mate these six 
cows to a pure-bred Holstein sire for three successive years, 
and retain all of the female offspring, and follow this up 
with Holstein blood by mating all of these and the other 
female descendants to a Holstein sire. 

During the succeeding three years, the plan was to mate 
these same cows to a pure-bred Jersey sire and save the 
female offspring, and mate them and their descendants to 
pure-bred Jersey sires. 

During the third three-year period these same original 
scrub cows were to be mated to a pure-bred Guernsey sire, 
the female offspring retained, and they and their descend- 
ants mated to a Guernsey bull. 

During the fourth three-year period these same orig'nal 
scrub cows were to be mated to a pure-bred Ayrshire si e 
and the females and their descendants retained and mated 
to an Ayrshire bull. All records of production of dairy 
products and calves and consumption of feeds were kept. 

At the present writing, these experiments have been con- 
tinued until 1919, or about 11 years. 

Because several of the first calves dropped by both the 
first and second generations were males, this experiment is 
not so far along as it should have been. In fact, so many 



118 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



male calves have been dropped by some cows that it was 
inadvisable to retain them. 

Some very interesting results, however, have been ob- 
tained by the use of a Holstein sire, and also by the use of 
a Jersey sire. The following data shows the improvement 
of the daughters over the dams by mating these scrub cows 
to a pure-bred Holstein bull. 



Name of cow 


Number 
of days 
in milk 


Lbs. 
milk 


& 


Lbs. 
fat 




Daisy (Unimproved dam) 
Floss (Half Holstein daughter) 
Increase of daughter over dam 


237 
237 


32U9.6 
5895.4 
2685.8 


4.23 
3.79 


135.79 

223.23 

87.44 




Muley (Unimproved dam) 

Muley 2d (Half Holstein daughter) 

Increase of daughter over dam 


237 
2 37 


4u9u.7 
6090.2 
1099.5 


4.28 
3.66 


175.05 
222.88 

47 83 





The above data has been calculated for each cow from an 
equal number of days. The grade cows had the shortest 
lactation period, not because they were bred earlier, but 
because of their natural inclination to go dry early. 

If the above data had been calculated from the amount of 
milk produced in a given lactation period, the difference in 
the production of the dam and the daughter would be still 
greater. The lactation periods have been reduced to the 
length of the shortest one, which was that of Daisy. 

Similar results have been obtained at other experiment 
stations. At the Iowa station (Bull. 165), the average 
results show that the first generation heifers from scrub 
cows by a pure-bred Holstein sire gave an increase of 
2314.5 pounds, or 71 percent in milk, and 67.15 pounds, or 
42 percent increase in fat. 

The first generation of the Jersey grades showed an 
increase of 205.6 pounds, or six percent more milk, end 
32.9 pounds, or 20 percent more fat. The average age of 
these Jersey grade heifers was 2j/2 years. The average age 
of the Holstein heifers above mentioned was 3^'2 years. 

One Guernsey grade heifer improved the milk produc- 
tion over that of the dam by 3451 pounds, or 131 percent of 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 



119 



the milk, and 179.22 pounds of fat, or 136 percent. The 
average age of this heifer was three years. The average 
records of the other three Guernsey grades were not quite 
equal to those of their dams. 

At the Ohio station (Cir. No. 135) one Holstein-Friesian 
bull increased the average production of his seven daugh- 
ters 1299 pounds of milk and 40 pounds of butter fat per 
year above that of the dams. In this same bulletin it is also 
reported that one 
Jersey sire de- 
creased the aver- 
age production of 
his 1 1 daughters 
over 700 pounds 
of milk and over 
45 pounds of but- 
ter fat per year 
under that of the 
dams. This par- 
ticular instance is 
a good example 
of the great im- 
portance of using care in selecting a pure-bred herd sire. 
It is not all pure-bred animals that will increase the pro- 
duction of the herd, nor can it be said that one breed is 
stronger in this respect than another. The success of 
grading up a common herd of cows lies in the selection of a 
pt-epotent sire of strong individuality, and steeped in milk 
and butter fat heredity. 

Inbreeding. — The extent to which inbreeding, that is. 
mating of close relatives, should be followed cannot well be 
told by anyone unless the animals in question are known. 
Nearly all successful breeders have practiced inbreeding 
more or less. Too close inbreeding cannot be generally 
recommended ; yet, in some instances, it brings the very 
best of results. 




FIG. .'1— Scrub co-v No. 
lbs. milk. 1927 lbs. 



.'56. Av. production 3874.6 
fat. (la. Exp. Sta.) 



120 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Too much inbreeding may lessen prolificacy. It may 
weaken the constitution of the offspring. It may affect the 
nervous energy. It may dwarf the size, and it may produce 
abnormalities in the offspring. All of these things the 
author has seen result from close inbreeding. 

On the other hand, if the owner desires to stamp and 
retain certain characteristics in his herd there is no surer 
way of doing it than to practice inbreeding. Inbreeding 
makes inheritance of characteristics more certain. The 
breeder should remember that undesirable as well as desir- 
able characteristics are fixed by inbreeding. 

The author believes that line breeding should be practiced 
in every herd, providing the breeder is sure that the type 

and production 
are what he 
should seek to 
develop in his 
herd. 

Keep bull 
separate from 
herd. — It is im- 
portant that the 
service bull be 
kept in good 
condition; 
otherwise strong 
and healthy 
calves cannot be 
expected. Many times the herd bull is permitted to run 
with the herd, even from the time he is young. 

A herd bull running with the herd Is exposed to too heavy 
service. If the bull is kept up, this can be regulated. One 
good service is just as good and even better than several, 
and it is not so exhausting to the sire. This is of special 
importance during the years when he Is growing. 

If the herd sire runs with the herd, it Is difficult for the 
owner to keep track of the service date. This is especially 




FIG. 52— Half blood Holstein cow No. 77. Out of 

scrub cow No. 56. Av. production 6955 lbs. milk, 

266.25 lbs. fat. 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 121 

true with the heifers or the young stock that do not come 
up to the harn regularly to be milked. 

When the herd bull runs with the herd, the bull himself 
is exposed to danger. He may crawl through the fences 
into the neighbor's herd. This may injure him. Besides, 
he may cause inconvenience and trouble by teaching other 
animals in the pasture to break through the fence. This 
may also be an imposition on the neighbors. 

When the herd bull runs with the herd he is also more 
dangerous. It is true that some herd bulls are very genth, 
but any bull is likely to become cross when some of the cows 
are in heat. 

The safest and best way is to keep the bull in an enclosure 
and under control. 

Care should be taken, however, to exercise the bull 
and to give him good care. It is wrong to put the bull into 
a small box stall in some rear part of the barn and give him 
little attention. 

The herd bull should be the pride of the herd. The man- 
ner in which he is kept is often indicative of how the rest 
of the herd is handled and cared for. 

There are various forms of bull pens. In some instances, 
there is a small open yard in connection with the box stall. 
The door between the open yard and the box stall may be 
closed and opened at will. This is a good way of keeping 
the herd bull. 

The author has always kept the bulls in separate box 
stalls. A door leads from the box stall into the pasture. 
This pasture is long and narrow, rather than square! A 
heavy, high woven wire fence encloses this pasture. 

Two or more bulls are usually let out together. Such a 
pasture provides good exercise and also good pasturage 
during the pasture season. During the winter it gives theill 
plenty of room for exercise. 

This method of keeping the bulls probably could not be 
used if they were exceedingly cross. No bulls of any breed 
are allowed to retain their horns in the herd supervised by 



122 larsen's farm dairying 

the author. This dehorning of dairy bulls is not approved 
by all dairymen, however. Some maintain that it lessens 
their dairy prepotency. 

Some keep bulls in a box stall and lead them out for 
exercise daily. In some instances, a sweep is made. The 
bull is tied to one end of the horizontal pole. This is one 
of the best ways of exercising a bull that has to be tied. 

Another way is to have a strong wire strung from one 
post to another. The bull is then tied to a heavy ring that 
slides from one end of this horizontal wire to the other. 

Some use a tread power. Besides giving the bull exer- 
cise, this method furnishes cheap power. 

The method of giving a bull exercise varies according to 
the bull and according to conditions on the farm. It is 
important, however, that the herd bull should not be 
allowed to stand tied up inside of a barn any length of 
time. Such a bull is not, as a rule, an active and sure 
breeder. He is not handled much and he may become cross. 

The box stall should be substantially boarded on the sides 
to a height of about 5 feet. On the top of this, there should 
be a heavy iron net frame. This permits the bull to look out. 
A bull entirely shut off from the rest of the barn is likely 
to be uneasy. Some have perpendicular iron bars about 4 
inches apart around the sides of the whole stall. If a bu 1 
has horns, he is likely to put them in between the bars and 
break the ends of the horns off. This is the only objection 
to such a stall. A stall having iron bars on all sides admits 
the best circulation of the air and it permits the bull to 
have a free view. 

Bulls that are inclined to grow fleshy and sluggish, and 
do not exercise much of their own accord, should be forced 
to take a reasonable amount of exercise. Some do this by 
working them on the tread power. Others teach them to 
work in the harness, and others lead them around a little 
every day. 

Handling a cross bull. — Many times a vicious bull has 
the very best of breeding and is strongly prepotent. It 



INCREASING IRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 123 

therefore pays to retain and care for such a bull, even 
though some extra care is necessary. The owner of such 
a bull should not take any chances of being injured by him. 

There are very few bulls that will willfully injure the 
regular attendant. A bull soon learns to know his master 
and caretaker. Some caretakers handle bulls in a way that 
brings out the worst there is in them, while others are kind, 
yet firm. Such a caretaker as the latter is usually safe with 
a bull. However, it does not pay to take any risk. The 
caretaker should w^atch a bull closely, and never allow him 
to get the advantage. 

Some cross bulls are quieted by blindfolding them. 

A cross bull often does not permit anyone to catch his 
ring. A man with a long hook can usually get hold of the 
ring from the sides of the box stall. If he cannot, then it 
may be necessary to keep the bull tied all the time. 

It is not advisable to tie the bull in the ring alone. He 
may break the ring, elongate the nose, or pull the nose out 
entirely. A cross bull with the muscle of the nose pulled 
out is very difificult to handle. 

A heavy halter, or a strong neck strap, should be used 
for tying, in addition to the ring. The halter rope should 
be tied shorter than is the rope in the ring. Some keep the 
bulls tied by using a heavy strap around the neck. Some 
tie them to a heavy perpendicular post placed in the center 
of the box stall, the top fastened to the ceiling and the 
bottom set in the ground. The ropes or chains are fastened 
to a ring sliding up and down the post. 

A herd bull in heavy service should be fed grain. A 
ration composed of six parts of oats, two parts of barley 
or speltz, two parts of bran, one part of oil meal, together 
with good upland wild hay, makes a good ration. In case 
alfalfa hay is used for roughage, two parts of corn may be 
added to the above-mentioned ration, or the barley increased 
to three parts instead of one part. All of the grain should 
be ground. 



124 larsen's farm dairying 

The author has not had much success in feeding silage to 
the bulls in heavy service. In every instance they have be- 
come sluggish and very slow for service. There are some, 
however, who recommend giving bulls silage. 

Do not change breeds. — To change breeds every now 
and then is a poor practice. A number of dairy farmers 
are of the opinion that if two different breeds are crossed, 
the progeny will inherit only the good qualities from each. 




FIG. 53 — Breedinpr crate. This crate is made entirely of 2 x 4 and 
2x12 pieces. The bottom pieces are 9 feet long ; the width be- 
tween planks is 2 feet ; the height at the front is 20 to 24 inches : 
the length from rear to center post is 41/^ feet; and the height of 
the center post should be from 3 to 3% feet. (Courtesy of Ohib 
Exp. Sta.) 

For instance, if Jerseys and Holsteins are crossed, some 
people think the offspring will produce the large flow of 
milk usually given by the Holsteins and the richness usu- 
ally given by the Jersey cow. Such a result may follow. 
Usually, however, when two different breeds are crossed, 
the offspring represents about an average of the two. The 
succeeding generations, however, are more indefinite. The 
blood line has been broken, and there will be little unity and 
definiteness in the type and little utility in the offspring. 



INCREASING TRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 125 

The author refers now especially to grades on one side and 
a pure-bred sire on the other. 

It is not an uncommon thing for the dairy farmer to use 
a Holstein sire for two or three years in order to obtain a 
large flow of milk and size in the herd. At the end of this 
period, he may change his mind and use a Guernsey in order 
to obtain richer and more yellow milk. Perhaps he will 
change his mind again and purchase a pure-bred Ayrshire 
sire in order to introduce rustling qualities in the offspring. 
It is such changes that are not desirable. 

Great care should be taken to get good type, and indi- 
viduals that are good producers and that belong to a good 
producing family or strain. If a pure-bred sire of such 
characteristics is obtained, there is little occasion to change 
breeds. It means that he should use greater care in select- 
ing the right strain and type. 

Bull association. — The cost of a good pure-bred sire 
coming from large producing ancestors is one of the draw- 
backs and objections that hinder many farmers from 
improving and unifying their dairy herds. Some pay from 
$100 to $500 for a dairy herd sire. Such a sire is used, as 
a rule, only about three years in one herd unless the herd is 
large enough for using two sires. 

To obviate this expense of purchasing a herd header 
every three years, breed associations have been formed. 

A breed association consists of a number of farmers who 
meet and mutually agree to purchase several pure-bred 
dairy sires of one particular breed. Usually the number of 
sires purchased is three. It is the number of cows on which 
the breed association is based, rather than on the number of 
farmers. 

In Michigan, Wisconsin and other states, community 
breeding has been practiced considerably. Community co- 
operation of this kind is made up of breeding circuits. A 
breeding circuit may be formed from three different units, 
each unit containing the number of cows which one bull 
can serve. This number may be from 30 to 60 cows. If 



125 larsen's farm dairying 

half of the herd is mated one part of the season and the 
other half another, a bull can serve even more than this 
number. Several farmers may own these 40 cows and that 
one bull, or one farmer may own th^m himself. There are 
instances where one farmer has a herd of only about 15 
cows and is willing to buy a bull for his own use rather 
than to co-operate with the neighbors. There may be three 
units of, say, 50 cows each. A bull is provided for each of 
these separate units in the circuit. At the end of the first 
three years the bulls are exchanged again. At the end of 
these nine years the bulls have gone the complete circuit. 

Bull A Bull B Bull C 

First three years 40 cows 40 cows 40 cows 

Bull C Bull A Bull B 

Second three years 40 cows 40 cows 40 cows 

BullB BullC Bull A 

Third three years 40 cows 40 cows 40 cows 

The above illustration shows how this change occurs. 
This method of community breeding not only obviates the 
buying of a new bull each three years, but it gives the 
farmers belonging to the circuit an opportunity to see what 
kind of heifers each one of these bulls will sire. Many 
times good bulls have been disposed of too early. 

This method of improving the dairy herds is econom- 
ical, and it is very practicable. It is basic to the improve- 
ment of the dairy industry. It is a plan which deserves 
much greater use than is practiced at present. 

Value of pedigree. — Too much emphasis may be placed 
on the pedigree. An animal should not be selected from 
the pedigree alone. The form, size and poise of the animal 
must be emphasized also. 

The value of a pedigree may be said to depend on sev- 
eral things. It depends, first, upon the honesty of the 
breeder and of the employees, and upon the system and 
correctness with which the records of the individuals in 
the herd are kept. Though rules regarding registration 
and performance of cows in the herd are very strict, a 



INCREASING PRODUCTION GF DAIRY HERD 



127 



dichonest breeder and a dishonest employee may evade at 
least some of them. Besides, carelessness and lack of cor- 
rect record keeping may cause mistakes. 



Statement showing Growth of Co-operative Bull Associations in the 
United States to July 1, 1916. (Dairy Division, U. S. Dept. AjTri.) 




State 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


Michigan 


1 


4 


7 


6 


10 


15 


15 


14 


14 




Minnesota 




1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 








North 
Dakota 










1 


2 


1 








Maryland 










1 


1 


1 








Vermont 














1 








Vy'isconsin 














1 








Connecti- 
cut 






















Maine 






















Oregon 






















Oklahoma 






















Iowa 


















^ 




South 
Carolina 






















Massa- 
husetts 






















North 
Carolina 






















Illinois 






















Total 


1 


5 


8 


7 


13 


21 


21 


71 


7 1 





Second, it depends upon the qualities of th2 ancestors, 
especially the near ancestors. This refers to uniformity 
of good type or form, to uniformity of large economic 
production of females, and ability of maks to sire numer- 
ous offspring of uniformly good type and production. 



128 larsen's farm dairying 

The value of a pedigree depends, thirdly, upon the man- 
ner in which excellence has been combined in the pedigree. 
Numerous outcrosses of blood foreign to the dominant 
type and strain do not add strength to a pedigree. 

Fourth, it depends upon the healthfulness and longevity 
of the various animals in the pedigree. 

There are two kinds of pedigrees in use: The tabulated 
and the extended. The tabulated is used nearly altogether 
by the dairy cattle breeding associations. It gives equal 
weight to each animal in the pedigree. The extended 
pedigree gives names of only the dams on the mother's 
side. The names of all of these females are given, back 
to the imported cow. 

The following illustrates the tabulated form of pedigree : 

Sex f Paternal great grandsire 

f Paternal grand sire 



r Sire 



Paternal grand dam 



Maternal grand sire 



Paternal great grand dam 
f Paternal great grand sire 
[ Paternal great grand dam 

Maternal great grand sire 
Maternal great grand dam 



Name and number of 
individual 

Date dropped 

Color 

Summary of ancestors 

Name and address of 1 f Maternal great grand sire 

breeder t. Maternal grand dam j 

[ Maternal great grand dam 

The defects in the extended pedigree shown on following 
page are apparent. There is no room for stating milk and 
butter fat performances nor achievements in the show ring. 
In addition, this pedigree mentions only the dams on the 
mother's side. 

The American Shorthorn Breeders' Association uses this 
form of pedigree. It is combined with the registration cer- 
tificate. Formerly only the males were numbered. In re- 
cent years the females have also been numbered. This 
enables a person, by the aid of the herd books, to make out a 
tabulated pedigree with greater ease. 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 



129 






r^ r^ rsi r^ On -- -+< . . . . 

TfiTti-^t^ooc-ioN^ooo 



-o-a 






^ Q 



u 
4, 
C 

c 


9. 

c 






, 



e S~ "' 



QQ 



C3^ 



O O w rt nj o! 









130 larsen's farm dairying 

If the preceding extended pedigree were tabulated it 
would appear as follows : — 



Henry Clay 3d 
354074 



College Clay 
495610 



College Silver 2d 
149371 



Belle Gentry 4th 

69257 



Minne Gentry 



Maternal ancestors. — The above discussion in this chap- 
ter refers chiefly to the importance of selecting a pure-bred 
and prepotent sire. It is equally important to provide good 
producing and good typed maternal ancestors, although it is 
widely believed that the sire's prepotency is the stronger, yet 
no one knows absolutely which one of the parents is the more 
prepotent in the transmission of the dairy characteristics. 
Generally speaking, the individual that is of purest blood 
and that represents the largest amount of large producing 
blood in the near ancestors is the most powerful in the 
transmission of dairy characteristics. Results of experi- 
ments clearly demonstrate that it is im.portant that the 
maternal dam and dam's near ancestors should also be good 
individuals as to both type and production. 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 



131 



One unimproved cow in the South Dakota state college 
dairy herd produced 175 pounds of butter fat in one year. 
The daughter produced 310 pounds. Another unimproved 
cow produced 152 pounds of butter fat in one year and her 
daughter produced 232 pounds. Other results indicate that 
the greater the production of the dam, the surer and greater 
will be the production of the offspring. 

With this view, heifer calves from the best producing 
cows should be saved and used as members of the herd. 
In many instances the members of the average herd are 
not large producing cows. Every farmer, however, has 
some cows that are better than others. Some farmers have 




FIG. 54 — A cow th."t hr>s been prepared for Pti pdvanc^-I re-ristry test. She 
has been dry for several months, and heavily fed to get her in good flesh. 

in the herd several individuals of one family. Perhaps it 
is mother, daughter and granddaughter that are better pro- 
ducers than any of the remainder of the herd. Efforts 
should be made to raise the heifer calves of such a family 
of cows. 



132 larsen's farm dairying 

It is evident that in the average grade dairy herd it is 
difficult to trace the producing abiUty of the maternal 
ancestors for several generations. Records have not al- 
vi-ays been kept, and the ownership frequently changes, so 
that the selection on the maternal side must often be made 
from the knowledge of only one generation. If no heifer 
calf is selected to be a member of the future herd without 
first applying the rule that the dam must be a large pro- 
ducing cow, one big step has been taken towards building 
up a profitable dairy herd. 

In the breeding and raising of pure-bred dairy cattle, 
the rules should be made to read that dams in the first 
three generations must be large producers. Pure-bred reg- 
istered cattle have a known pedigree. The owners of the 
animals are also known, and in many instances the in- 




FIG. 54% — A herd of unimproved cows used for dairy purposes in a new- 
country. 

dividuals are in the advanced registry. From these sources, 
knowledge of the producing ability of the near ancestors 
can be ascertained. 

In examining the records of cows, the amount of milk 
and butter fat produced and the circumstances under 
which the records were made should be examined and 
carefully considered. Especially is this important if the 
production represents short-time tests. Experiments, as 
well as practical results, have amply demonstrated the fact 



INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 133 

that the percent of fat in milk for short periods can be 
increased beyond normal. If a seven-day official test record 
of a Holstein cow, for instance, shows 350 pounds of milk 
containing 21 pounds of butter fat, this should be regarded 
as an abnormal test. The milk in this instance contained 
six percent of fat, which is not normal to this particular 
breed of cattle, whereas a production of 600 pounds of 
milk and 21 pounds of butter fat would represent a normal 
richness of milk for this breed. The latter cow, if of 
good form, would be a much more desirable cow to select 
as a foundation cow than would the first mentioned. In 
examining the records of cows from any of the breeds, one 
should examine, in so far as possible, with the view of find- 
ing out whether the production was made with normal feed 
and the cow in normal condition. 



CHAPTER VII 

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 

There is no subject so important to the dairy farmer as 
is the proper raising of the dairy cow. Upon this depends, 
to a large extent, the profitableness of the future herd. 
The important steps in the raising of the future dairy cow 
are fundamental in character. 

These steps are chiefly three : 

1. Selecting the right parents. 

2. Caring for mother during pre-natal period. 

3. Caring for calf after birth, or during the 

post-natal period till first freshening. 

Selecting Right Parents 

Every calf has a right to be well born. Probably the 
best way to acomplish this is to see that the right parents 
are selected. Both the male and the female parents must 
be healthy. The life germ must be active and in every 
way normal. 

The importance and the manner of selecting the parents 
of a calf have been discussed in the previous chapter. 

Feed and Care During Pre-Natal Period 

Relatively little is known about the external factors 
which afi'ect the growth of the calf during the pre-natal 
period. The gestation period, or the period during which 
the cow carries the calf, is about 275 days. The length 
of this period varies a little. Usually a young, healthy cow 
requires the least time for developing a calf. An aged cow 
usually carries her calf a few days over time. A male 
calf is usually carried a few days longer than is a female 
calf. 

In some cases there is an inclination for the dairy 
farmer to think that if a cow does not milk she ought not 

134 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 135 

to be fed. This is especially true in the section where 
dairy farming is carried on only as a side line. The dry 
cows, or the cows carrying their calves, are at times turned 
out to ''rustle" their own feed in the cornstalk field, and 
on the meadows, and to secure all the additional roughage 
they need from the straw pile. The author has personally 
seen dry cows receiving no shelter at all except an old 
straw pile during very cold winter weather. If such cows 
are to freshen in the spring, they come out of the winter 
in a very poor physical condition. In some instances such 
cows are so weak after freshening that they are unable 
to stand on their feet. 

While it may be helpful, from certain standpoints, for 
the animal to be out in the fresh air, this manner of pro- 
cedure certainly is not conducive to the production of a 
strong, healthy calf. 

A cow while carrying the calf should be fed a good and 
properly selected ration. It is usually considered that a 
mother should receive a ration medium rich in protein. 
A palatable feed balanced to about one part of protein to 
seven parts of carbohydrates gives good results. Someone 
has stated that "a bushel of corn given to a cow previous 
to freshening is worth two bushels after freshening." This 
statement is probably not true literally. It is, however, 
certain that a good healthy dairy cow will store up extra 
body flesh during the period that she is not in milk, and if 
she is the right sort of a dairy cow, this extra body flesh 
will be converted into milk after freshening. 

A cow that is fed a ration rich in fat and heat producing 
substances and becomes very fleshy during the gestation 
period often drops a very small and weak calf. This ex- 
tremely fleshy condition of a cow should be avoided. 

E5ect of surroundings of cow on calf. — It is very diffi- 
cult to state definitely just what effects, if any, the sur- 
roundings of the pregnant cow have on the calf. It is 
generally believed that the nervous temperament of the 
calf and even the appearance may be affected during the 



136 tARSEN's FARM DAIRYING 

pre-natal period through the cow. The Bible states, 
Genesis 30-37, that Jacob was to receive all the speckled 
and streaked stock as his hire. In order to increase these 
in number, he peeled the bark off of sticks and put them 
into the watering troughs. It also states that he put thess 
partially barked limbs into the watering troughs, when t'.e 
best and strongest females came to drink. This method, 
the Bible states, resulted in Jacob becoming the owner, 
first, of many cattle, and, secondly, of the strongest and 
best stock. 

The author knows an intelligent and judicious dairyman 
who believes that in order to develop a good dairy heifer 
it is important that the cow, during the gestation period, 
come into the barn, and that she have the opportunity of 
seeing the milking utensils and of seeing the other cows 
milked. He believes that such surroundings will have a 
favorable effect upon the dairy qualities of the calf not yet 
born. 

The surroundings of the cow should be of such a nature 
that the cow is kept quiet. It is a well-known fact that 
an excited cow and a cow with a bad disposition usually 
gives birth to a calf of a similar nature. It is" possible that 
this quality is not inherited from occasional excitement, 
and at the same time there can be no question as to the 
importance of keeping the mother in surroundings that 
tend to develop quietness rather than excitedness. 

The extent to which feed, surroundings and disposition 
of the mother affect the calf during the pre-natal period, 
no one can sa} . It is, however, certain that nothing harm- 
ful can come from providing the most favorable condi- 
tions in these respects for the mother during the gestation 
period, while decidedly unfavorable results may follow 
careless methods in caring for the cow during the calf's 
pre-natal period. 

Feed and Care of Calf 

Under some dairy farm conditions few or no calves are 
raised. In case the milk is sold at from 8 cents to 15 cents 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 137 

per quart for direct consumption, it can readily be seen that 
as few calves as possible are raised on milk. Under such 
conditions only a very select few of the heifer calves are 
raised. In some instances the calves, male and female, are 
sold, or given away, as soon after birth as the mothers' milk 
can be sold, usually when about a week old. 

In districts where market milk is produced and con- 
densed milk, milk powder and cheese are made from the 
milk, relatively little importance is attached to the raising 
of calves. Usually so large a price is obtained for the 
milk that the dairy farmer considers that it does not pay 
to raise the calves, and that it is better for him to milk 
the cow as long as she will milk and then buy another to 
replace her when she goes dry. 

It is true that there are substitutes for milk that can be 
used. However, nothing has been discovered that will 
produce such good, healthy-looking calves during the first 
week as will mother's milk. If calves are raised on one 
or more of the various kinds of substitutes, considerable 
trouble and attention are necessary, and for a time at 
least the calves will be more or less scrawny. 

It can readily be seen that if very many dairy farmers 
would follow the policy of no calf raising, there would 
soon be a shortage of good dairy cows. In fact, this short- 
age is apparent now. This is evident by the high price 
paid for good young healthy and properly bred dairy cows, 
and the high price that is being paid for them as compared 
with their value a few years ago. Every dairy farmer, 
even though he sells his milk at a good price, should ar- 
range to breed and raise at least enough heifers to replace 
the cows in his own herd. He is sure of better bred cows, 
better individuals, and good healthy stock. If he purchases 
his cows, he runs considerable risk. 

Care of calf v^^hen first born. — If the mother has been 
in good physical condition, and she freshens in a normal 
manner, the calf should be normal at time of birth. If 
the presentation of the calf is normal, little help need be 



138 larsen's farm dairying 

given. The normal delivery of a calf is front feet first 
and the nose and head resting between the two front legs. 
In case of a heifer, and with some cows, it is desirable and 
even necessary to assist in the delivery of the calf by gently 
pulling on the calf's front legs. 

There is some difference in opinion as to whether a calf 
should be taken away from its mother at once after birth 
or whether it should be permitted to remain with its 
mother for some time. There are some who do not even 
put a cow into a stall by herself during freshening. She 
is left in the stanchion in the barn. Under such conditions 
the mother scarcely has a chance even to see the calf. 

The author believes that every cow should have an op- 
portunity, not only to see the calf, but to lick the calf. 
At times the calf is weak when first born. Such a calf 
benefits by being handled. The mother's licking is the 
best sort of handling. There are some who remove the 
calf at once, and in case of weakness will take a whisk of 
straw and thoroughly rub the calf. If the mother licks 
the calf, this rubbing is not necessary. Should a calf be 
so weak as to not breathe well, the attendant may gently 
open the mouth of the calf and blow into the calf's mouth. 
He may also take hold of the front legs and gently pull 
them apart and then let them come together again. At 
times this will aid the calf in respiration. 

With a normal calf it is not necessary to do anything 
except to put it to its mother's head. 

With normal freshening, it is not necessary to do any- 
thing with the navel of the calf. In case there is any 
danger of calf cholera or white scours, or in case the 
owner wishes to be sure to prevent it, he should paint the 
cord at the place of breaking with tincture of iodine, or 
disinfect it in a 2^2 percent solution of carbolic acid. Un- 
der normal conditions, however, the navel will heal itself. 

For some time the author used to turn the cows loose 
in a box stall before freshening. Now he puts a halter 
on the cow and ties her to the manger during the freshen- 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 139 

ing time. At times a cow running loose in a box stall 
will lie down with the hind quarters up against the corner 
of the stall, or very close to the wall. This may interfere 
with giving the cow tlie proper help in case it is necessary, 
and it may interfere with proper delivery of the calf. If 
the cow is tied in the stall, one is always sure of plenty of 
room behind the cow. 

The length of the time that the calf should remain with 
its mother varies with the different dairy farmers. It 
cannot be said that there is any definite time when the 
calf should be taken away. The author practices leaving 
the calf with its motlier until the milk is in condition to 
be used. This length of time varies some according to 
the condition of the cow; usually it is about three days. 
During these first days a cow is not giving her full flow 
of milk. This first milk is essential for the calf, whether 
he is allowed to remain with his mother or whether he is 
fed from the pail. 

With the ordinary unimproved cow, it is probably not 
necessary to milk the cow during these first few days. 
Few of the common cows give more milk than the calf 
will take. With the improved dairy cow, the herdsman 
should see that the cow is milked regularly, during the 
time that the calf is with the dam, as well as after the calf 
is taken from the dam. 

In case the cow is troubled with a swollen udder it may 
be advisable to leave the calf with its mother a little while 
longer. 

Some object to leaving the calf with its mother because 
she usually longs for the calf after it is taken away, and 
may even refuse to give down her milk for some time 
after the calf has been removed. This is especially so in 
case of a heifer. However, the author has never found 
any difficulty in this connection. 

The leaving of the calf with its mother is consoling 
and comforting to the cow. She is feverish and needs 



140 larsen's farm dairying 

the calf for a few days. Besides, it gives the calf a good 
start in life. 

The care of the cow during the freshening period will 
be considered under a separate head in connection with 
feeding the cow. 

Place in which to keep calves. — It is important that 
the dairy farmers have a good place in which to keep the 
calves. By this the author does not mean that every 
dairy farmer should have an especially built calf bam 
artificially heated. Such comforts are often given to calves 
raised by breeders of pure-bred cattle. Calves raised un- 
der such conditions, of course, appear slick, and are well 
as long as they are in such surroundings. Calves raised 
under such conditions, however, will have a setback when 
finally they are sold and put into surroundings and con- 
ditions such as the average dairy farmer has. 

There is, however, a general neglect on the part of the 
dairy farmer in providing a suitable place in which to 
keep calves. There is a tendency for the average farmer 
to put the calves into any part of the barn that is handy. 
The author has personally seen little calves put into a dark, 
unventilated small place cut out of the side of a haymow 
near the center of the barn. Such a place is unsanitary 
and unfit for calves. 

The author has also seen little calves put into one large 
pen, even one having modern calf equipments, in one cor- 
ner of the main barn in which all of the cows were kept. 
Every night this barn was very close and warm. During 
the time the cows were out and when the barn was being 
cleaned the temperature was very low. 

Under such conditions calves are likely to take cold. 
The calf stalls should be separate from the remainder of 
the barn. Preferably they should be on the south side of 
the barn. There should be plenty of sunlight and good 
ventilation. The stall should be kept dry and well bedded. 

There should be several small stalls rather than one 
large one. This prevents bunching and crowding during 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 



141 



feeding, it enables the attendant to keep the stalls and 
the calves dry and clean, and it enables the herdsman to 
separate the calves according to size and sex. 

In front of the calf stalls there should be feeding 
mangers and stanchions. Under no circumstances should 
there be more calves in the pen than there are stanchions. 
When feeding time comes each calf should be fastened in 
the stanchion. He should remain there during feeding and 
a short time after feeding. 




FIG. oo Ilomenicde stanchions for feeding calves in pasture. 
(Courtesy Kansa.j Exp. Sta.) 

If the calves are permitted to get loose at once after 
feeding, especially if there are a good many calves in one 
stall, there is a tendency for them to suck each other's 
ears, navels and scrotums. This should be prevented, and 
usually is, if the calves are allowed to remain in the 
stanchions 10 or 15 minutes after each feeding. It is a 
good plan to feed them fresh grain at once after feeding 
the milk. 

Teach calf to eat grain early. — Every calf should be 
taught to eat grain as early as possible. This may be done 



142 lak:5En's tarm dairying 

in several ways. A good way is to put the small calves 
together in one or two pens. There should not be more 
than six calves in one pen. A smaller number is better. 
Some keep individual pens, which, from the standpoint of 
the breeder, is the best. From the standpoint of the 
average dairy farmer, probably the keeping of three or four 
calves together is just as practicable. The smallest and 
youngest calves are first put together in one pen and the 
second largest size in another pen, the third largest size 
in still another one, and so on. When the calves reach a 
certain age, it is necessary to separate the male calves 
from the females. 

In the pen where the little calves are there should be 
one calf that knows how to eat grain. Little calves are 
imitators. When they see the older calves eating grain 
the little ones will often begin to eat when only a few 
days old. 

Another way to teach a calf to eat grain is to hold a 
handful of feed up to his mouth immediately after he is 
through drinking milk. Some of this feed will adhere to 
his moist mouth. The calf instinctively licks the grain off, 
and in that way gets started to eat grain early. 

A calf should be used to eating grain when about two 
weeks old. Many calves will not eat more grain than they 
need until they are six months old. Ordinarily a calf will 
not eat more than three pounds of grain a day until after 
he is past six months of age. This is none too much for 
a calf of that age. When young a calf will not eat more 
than about one pound of grain a day. 

Care should be taken not to spill milk in the manger. 
Care should also be taken that the grain is freshly sup- 
plied and that the manger is kept clean and fresh. 

Amount of milk to feed. — Granting that the calf is 
permitted to remain with its mother for about three days, 
the feeding from pails begins at this point. The first day 
the calf will probably not drink more than about two 




RAISING THE DAIRY COW 

r 



143 




30 Days of Age 



60 Days of Age 




150 Days of Age 



]^0 Day^ of A-. 



FIG. 56— Illustrating growth of a calf during 30-day periods. 
(Purdue Exp. Sta, Bull. No. 193.) 



144 larsen's farm dairying 

quarts of milk, or about four pounds. It Is important that 
the mother's milk be fed so long as he receives whole milk. 

The author practices feeding calves whole milk about 
three weeks. In some instances the change from whole 
milk to skim milk is begun after two weeks. This depends 
somewhat on the condition of the calf. In some instances 
the change from whole milk to skim milk does not occur 
till the calf is even four or five weeks old. Generally 
speaking, Holstein calves are able to go on skim milk 
quicker than are Jerseys and Guernseys. Granting that 
during the first three weeks the calf is fed whole milk, and 
that on an average he receives about eight pounds daily, 
during the latter part of the three weeks he will probably 
drink 10 pounds daily. This amount of milk will grad- 
ually increase from four pounds the first day to 10 pounds 
the latter part of the three-week period. A specially large 
calf may need an average of 10 pounds a day during the 
three weeks. 

This means that the calf will drink about 170 pounds 
of whole milk during the first three weeks. A large calf 
will drink about 210 pounds of whole milk during the 
same time. 

The changmg from whole milk to skim milk should not 
take place till the calves know how to eat grain, be this 
when the ca^f is two weeks old or when he is four weeks 
old. The change from whole milk should be gradual and 
should extend over a period of about one week. During 
this time the calves should be watched carefully. Special 
efforts should be made to have the skim milk sweet, fresh 
and of proper temperature. The amount of skim milk 
to feed varies according to the size of the calf and his con- 
dition. The average healthy calf will consume on an aver- 
age about two gallons of milk per day, or about 16 pounds. 
When first put on skim milk, he should not receive over 10 
or 12 pounds daily, gradually increasing it to 18 or 20 
pounds. 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 



145 



A calf may profitably be fed skim milk until he is a year 
old, if the owner has plenty of skim milk on hand. The 
calf should in any case receive skim milk till he is six 
months old. After this time he will thrive well without 
milk provided he has grain and plenty of roughage. A 
calf may get along without milk earlier than this. The 
author has raised calves that received no milk after they 
were three months old. Such calves, however, receive a 
considerable setback until they get used to being without 
milk. 

The feed prices charged in making the calculations as 
shown in table below, are as follows: Whole milk, $2 per 
100 pounds; skim milk, 25 cents per 100 pounds; hay, $12 
per ton ; silage, $4 per ton ; and grain, $30 per ton 

♦Table Showing Cost of Growing Dairy Heifers to Two Years of Age. 



Breed 

of 
Cow 


Feed 
cost 
first 
year 


Feed 

cost 

second 

year 


Labor 
for 
two 

years 


Bed- 

ding 

31.00 
per 
year 


Barn 

rent, 
insur- 
ance, 
inter- 
est 
and 
taxes 


Value 
of 

manure 
pro- 
duced 


Net 
cost 
of 

heifer 
to two 

years 
of age 




324.41 
28.62 
28.22 
28.18 
32.29 


327.88 
26.26 
27.21 
25.93 
28.99 


310. 

10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 


'I: 

2. 
2. 
2. 


34. 
4. 
4. 
4. 
4. 


35. 


363.29 
65 28 


Jersey 


Holstein 


66 43 


Jersey 


65 11 


Holstein , . 


72 28 






Averape 


328.34 


327.25 


310. 


32. 


34. 


35. 


366.59 



*3torrs Agricultural Station Bulletin No. 63. 

Changing to skim milk. — The time during which the 
calf is changed from its mother's milk to skim milk is the 
critical period in the life of a calf. This is so, not because 
of any serious danger if proper care is taken, but because 
there are several factors w^hich afifect the calf that are not 
properly observed. 

In the first place, skim milk is not as nutritious as is 
whole milk. The whole milk contains the butter fat. Be- 
sides, whole milk is mother's milk. While, chemically 
speaking, there may be no difiference between mother's milk 
and some other cow's milk, there is probably a force in 



146 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



mother^s milk that is of value to the calf. The following 
table shows the composition of whole milk and skim mi'k 
and whey, the three products that are many times used 
for feeding calves. 





Water 

% 


Fat 

% 


Milk-sugar 

% 


Casein 
% 


Albumen 

% 


Ah 

% 


Whole niilk.. 
Skimmilk 

\.iiev 


87.10 
90.25 
93 00 


3.90 
0.20 
0.3 ) 


4.75 
5.15 

5.(^0 


3.00 
3.00 
0.^0 


0.40 
0.60 
0.70 


0.7S 
0.83 
0.70 



In order to supplement the butter fat, the calf should 
know how to eat grain. The author never makes the 
change from whole milk to skim milk until the calf is thor- 
oughly familiar with eating grain. From the standpoint 
of nutrition, it is not necessary to add any substitutes to 
the skim milk. The author has at different times fed the 
various substitutes in the skim milk, but has never had as 
good success as when the calves themsel\*es eat grain out 
of the manger in addition to the skim milk. 

Calves cannot all be put on skim milk at the same time. 
A calf that is a little backward does not handle feed well 
and should not be changed from whole milk to skim milk 
until he is in the very best of physical condition. 

Probably one reason why little calves do not do well 
on skim milk is that this kind of milk is not ahvays kept in 
as good condition as is the whole milk. When whole milk 
is fed it is usually given at once after milking, while fresh 
and free from contamination. When skim milk is fed, it 
may be contaminated to a greater or less degree with 
undesirable germs. On the average farm the chance of 
contamination is great. The separator is not always in 
as good and sanitary a condition as it might be. The 
skim milk may have been contaminated from other cows* 
milk in the herd. Wlien separated all milk is usually put 
together. Besides, the skim milk may not be of so uniform 
a temperature. The skim milk may be allowed to stand 
around for some time and ferment before it is fed. 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 147 

Usually if a calf is fed skim milk when about three 
weeks old, if he knows how to eat grain, and the milk is 
fed fresh at the right temperature, little trouble is encoun- 
tered in making this change. 

Substitutes for milk. — There are conditions, such as 
usually prevail in cheese-making districts, when it is almost 
an economical necessity to avoid feeding either whole milk 
or skim milk to the calves. Several proprietary mixtures 
have been manufactured, which, when mixed with a certain 
amount of water, are considered to take the place of milk 
for calf feeding and even for feeding pigs. Several ex- 
periment stations have experimented with this. Some 
have been found fairly good. The mixture with which the 
Pennsylvania station (Bull. No. 60) obtained the best re- 
sults was Hay ward's calf meal. The contents of this mix- 
ture are as follows : Wheat flour, 30 pounds ; cocoanut meal, 
25 pounds; nutrium, 20 pounds; linseed meal, 10 pounds; 
and dried blood, 2 pounds. 

The following shows the proportion of the ingredients 
used with the different calf meals with which Dr. Lindsey 
experimented (Bull. 164, Massachusetts station) : 

Lindsey's Calf Meal I 

10 pounds fine corn meal, 5 pounds glucose sugar, 

10 pounds flour middlings, 1 pound salt. 

15 pounds flaxseed meal, Cost, 3.2 cents per pound. 
10 pounds cheap flour, 

Lindsey's Calf Meal II 

25 pounds ground oat flakes, 2 pounds glucose sugar, 

15 pounds flaxseed meal, 1 pound salt. 

8 pounds cheap flour, Cost, 3.7 cents per pound. 

Lindsey's Calf Meal III 

8 pounds fine corn meal, 7 pounds glucose sugar, 

10 pounds flouj- middlings, ^2 pound salt. 

14^ pounds flaxseed meal. Cost, 3.4 cents per pound. 
10 pounds cheap flour, 

Lindsey's Calf Meal V 

22 pounds ground oat flakes, 1^ pounds blood flour, 

10 pounds flaxseed meal, ^^ pound bicarbonate of potash, 
5 pounds flour middlings, ^ pound salt. 

11 po'-Jnds fine corn meal, Cost, 3.3 cents per pound. 



148 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Ltndsey's Calf Meal VI 



35 pounds ground oat flakes, 
12.Y2 pounds barley malt, 
VA pounds blood flour, 



y2 pound bicarbonate of potash, 

H pound salt. 

Cost, 3.3 cents per pound. 



In most instances the above were fed in connection with 
skim milk. 

The following table gives a summary of the leading 
calf meals : 



Kind of Ration 



Skimmilk in large supply, ordi- 
nary grains and hay 

Skimmilk and Hayward's Calf 
Meal (Lindsey) 

Whole milk and Hayward's Calf 
Meal (Hay ward) 

Skimmilk and Schumacher's 
Calf Meal (Lindsey) 

Whole milk and Schumacher's 

Calf Meal as per directions 
(Wing) 

Skimmilk and Blatchford's Calf 
Meal (Lindsey) 

Whole milk and Blatchford's 
Calf Meal (Wing) . 

Whole and skimmilk and Bib- 
by's Cream Equivalent (Lind- 
sey) 

Whole and skimmilk and Lind- 
sey's meal I 

Whole and skimmilk and Lind- 
sey's meal II 

Whole and skimmilk and Lind- 
say's meal III 

Whole and skimmilk and Lind- 
sey's meal IV 

Whole and skimmilk and Lind- 
sey's meal V 

Whole and skimmilk and Lind- 
sey's meal VI 

Average (calf-meal calves) . . . . 

•Not included In the average, 



Number 

of 

calves 



Days 

in 
trial 



235 
173 
102 
150 

132 

150 

148 

147 

183 

148 

148 

164 

157 
139 



Daily 

gain 
(lbs.) 



1.22 
1.23 
1.18 
1.00 

1.19 
1.15* 

.87 

1.21 

.97 

1.04 

1.70 

1.50 

1.25 

1.35 
1.17 



Total 
food 
cost 



222.08 
20.44 
11.34 

12.27 

13.16 

17.37 

13.08 

14.54 

14.68 

15.24 

14.49 

15.12 

16.54 
13.90 



Cost of 

food per 

pound of 

gain (cents) 



7.7 

9.6 
9.6 
8.2 



13.5 

7.5 

10.4 

7.6 

6.1 

6.5 

7.6 

7.6 
9.07 



If a calf is raised with the minimum amount of milk, it is 
probably best to feed the mother's milk and to feed as little 
whole milk as the calf will get along with, and begin to sub- 
stitute calf meal as early as is possible. The time when a 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 



149 



calf can get along without milk at all varies with different 
individuals and with different breeds. The author's ex- 
perience has been that Holstein calves get along without 
milk quicker than do Jersey calves, for instance. The 
physical condition of the calf also has much to do with 
determining just when a calf can get along without milk. 
A calf should have milk for at least two or three weeks. 



The composition of these 


different 


calf meal 


5 is given as follows: 






Water 


Ash 


Fibre 


Protein 


Extract 
matter 


Fat 


Hayward's (not analyzed) 
Schumacher's 


■ 9. 34 

10.42 

7.99 

7.37 

7.34 

6.84 

7.34 

10.78 

11.30 

10.33 


2.22 
5.13 
6.23 
3.30 
3.50 
3.55 
3.50 
4.43 
4.67 
4.36 


l.Sl 
6.03 
4.90 
2.78 
2.93 
2.34 
2.14 
5.55 
4.50 
3.72 


'17.15 
24.91 
16.78 
14.98 
20.89 
17.08 
16.29 
25.31 
23.82 
25.35 


6"2.29 
48.56 
49.68 
58.99 
56.34 
57.64 
65.27 
48.53 
51.03 
50.51 


' 7.48 




4.9S 


Bibby's 


14.42 


Lindsey's I 


12.58 




9.00 


Lindsey's V 


12.55 


Lindsey's VI 


5.46 


Clover Leaf Calf Meal... 
Ryde's Cream Calf Meal. 
Sugarota 


5.40 
4.68 
5.73 



After this time, with careful feeding and care, he can get 
along without milk, but it will be at the expense of the 
growth of the calf and the appearance of the calf. The 
person who expects to raise a good heifer calf to take a 
future place in the dairy herd should not be too stingy 
with the whole milk, even though he is getting a good price 
for it when sold in the market. The extra growth and 
appearance resulting from being fed whole milk will more 
than make up for the milk she drinks. 

A good calf meal is two pounds of sifted ground oats, 
two pounds of finely ground corn meal, and one pound of 
flaxseed. 

Calf feeders. — Calf feeders have been advertised and 
sold. These usually consist of a rubber nipple attached to 
a container of some kind. The milk is put into the con- 
tainer and the calf sucks the milk from it through the rub- 
ber nipple. It is claimed that the calf does not drink his 
milk so rapidly and that slow drinking is desirable for 
proper digestion of the milk. It is probable that the calf 



150 larsen's farm dairying 

drinking out of a pail may drfnk milk more rapidly than is 
good for him. He may gulp in a quantity of air. Aside 
from this, there are probahly no bad effects from pail drink- 
ing, providing the amoimt of milk and the sanitary condi- 
tion of the pail are properly guarded. 

Diarrhea in ca!f. — Diarrhea or scours in calves is proba- 
bly one of the worst maladies affecting young calves. 

There are two kinds of scours : 

1. White scours or calf cholera. This is a germ disease. 
No one knows for sure the nature of the germ that causes 
the difficulty. Dr. Williams of Cornell University is of the 
opinion that there is a relation existing between the germs 
that cause abortion and those that cause white scours (Cor- 
nell Urtiversity Cir. No. 4). 

This disease usually shows itself in calves when they are 
very young, only a few days old. It is claimed that the germ 
that causes white scours enters the calf's system through 
the navel at the time of birth, or immediately thereafter. A 
calf affected with white scours is very weak. White, foamy 
feces ooze from the rectum. In a short time the calf's eyes 
begin to look dull and glassy. The disease is fatal in most 
cases. There is no effective remedy known. The calf is 
young, and its system cannot stand treatment and medicines. 

To prevent white scours, disinfect thoroughly the barn 
and the stall in which the calf is put. A 2^ percent solution 
of carbolic acid for disinfecting the cow and the calf is 
recommended. A five percent solution may be used for 
disinfecting the barn and the outside of the cow. Some 
recommend painting the navel of the calf with tincture of 
iodine at once after birth. 

In case there is much trouble with calf cholera in the 
herd, and the cow freshens in the spring, a good plan is to 
let the cow freshen in a small pasture near the barn. 

Thorough disinfection of the navel of the calf, the cow 
and the whole barn, is the best preventive. This is a case 
where prevention is better than cure. 

2. Scours due to Indigestion. There are many causes of 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 151 

this form of scours. It may start from a slight derange- 
ment of the digestive system. If observed and taken in 
time, it is not dangerous, especially if the calf is not too 
young. 

Many times scours start at the time that the calf is 
changed from whole to skim milk. 

At times it is caused by feeding cold and warm milk 
alternately. Uniform temperature of milk is important. 

Scours may be caused by keeping the calves in a pen that 
is wet underneath, or wet above. It is easy for calves to 
catch cold, if the rain leaks through the roof and gets the 
calves partially wet. A dry, clean, well-bedded place should 
be provided. 

Scours in calves may be caused by a change of tempera- 
ture in the room. There are times when little calves are 
kept in a barn that is warm at night and cold in the day- 
time. \"ariation in temperature is very detrimental to 
calves. A uniform temperature, even though cold, is more 
healthful than is a temperature that varies du-ily. 

Calves may obtain indigestion and scours by sucking each 
other, especially by sucking each other's navels. Some male 
calves excrete urine when other calves suck. 

The above are some of the chief factors that are likely to 
cause indigestion and scours in calves. 

Many remedies for diarrhea or calf scours have been used 
and suggested. The digestive disturbances are due chiefly 
to the action of undesirable germs in the digestive tract, and 
also to giving the calf too much to eat during the time of 
sickness. To remedy the scours, reduce the amount of feed, 
and secondly, give medicine that will rid the digestive tract 
of those abnormal fermentations, without poisoning the 
calf. If the calf has had the disease for some time, and the 
disease has obtained a firm hold, then first give the calf a 
physic. Castor oil is highly recommended for this. Give 
from one to three ounces of this, depending on the age and 
condition of the calf. This castor oil should be given in 
about one-half to one pint of milk. If the calf will not 



152 LARSEN*S FARM DAIRYING 

drink it, give it as a drench. Allow about six to eight hours 
for this to do its work. Then give one teaspoon ful of a 
mixture of one part of salol and two parts of subnitrate of 
bismuth. Give this with one-half pint of milk, or place it 
on the tongue of the calf and wash it down with milk. This 
is known as the Wisconsin remedy for scours. 

The formaldehyde treatment is recommended by the 
South Carolina station. It is given by mixing one-half 
ounce of formalin with 15^ ounces of water. Use one 
teaspoonful of this mixture for each pint of milk fed to 
the calf. 

One successful dairy farmer highly recommends the 
following simple remedy: Put one teaspoonful of allspice 
in one pint of hot w^ater. Allow it to steep and give the 
calf the tea six hours apart. Feed no milk until the calf 
improves. 

Do not dope a calf with too much medicine. Give him a 
dry and clean bed, fresh pure water to drink, a stall in 
which there is no draft, but plenty of fresh air and light, 
and reduce his feed as soon as the scours are noticed. If 
taken in time, these precautions are usually sufficient to cure 
ordinary scours. 

The author has had more trouble from constipation than 
he has had with scours. If calves are fed regularly and 
properly, and kept in a dry place, well lighted and well 
ventilated, and of reasonably warm temperature, there will 
be very little trouble from scours, but there may be trouble 
from constipation. Constipation will kill the calf quicker 
than will a case of scours. 

The calves should be watched carefully. When a calf is 
constipated, give him a rectal injection with warm soft 
water containing some good soap in solution. This in most 
cases will cause movement of the bowels. If the calf still 
continues to be constipated, give him about two tablespoon- 
fuls of castor oil in a pint of milk. The attendant shouM 
watch that the constipation does not return after the calf 
has been purged with the castor oil. 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 



153 



Factors affecting size of cow. — It is important to 
develop the natural size of the individual. Every individual 
has a natural limit to which it will grow if properly cared 
for. If an individual does not reach this limit, through 
lack of proper feed and care during either its pre-natal or 
post-natal period, the cow will not have reached its proper 
point of maximum utility. The chief factors which affect 
the size of an individual are as follows : 

1. Kind of parents. Size is one of the qualities that are 
hereditary. It is similar to milk and butter fat, color, and 
any other of the characteristics that are hereditary. If all 
of the near ancestors are of large size, the calf should inherit 
this quality. 

2. Birth weight of calves. The weight of a calf when 
born depends on the breed as well as on the individual or 
strain within the Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, 
Shorthorn and any other breeds of cattle. In practically 
all cases, the calves that were large at birth were propor- 
tionately large at maturity. The author has seen pure-bred 
Holstein calves weigh 120 pounds at birth and some that 
weighed only 70 pounds. 

Some individual mothers naturally nourish the fetus well 
during the gestation period, while others are more inclined 
to put the feed on their own back. Real fleshy cows many 
times drop very small calves. The feed and care received 
during the gestation period also affect the size of the calf. 

The comparative birth weight of the calves from the 
different breeds is as follows :* 





No. of 
Calves 


Av. Wt. 

of Males 
Pounds 


Av. Wt. 
of 

Females 
Pounds 


Average of Both Sexes 


Breed 


Av. Wt. 

of calf 
Pounds 


Wt. of 

Dam 

Pounds 


Wt of Calf 

to Wt. of Dam 

Percent 




119 

57 

34 
104 

5 
8 


58 
75 
77 
94 

107 


49 
68 
74 

85 
90 


55 
71 
76 
89 
100 
76 


900 

996 

976 

1,153 

1,123 
1.249 


6.11 
7.13 
7.79 
7.72 
8.90 
6.08 




Ayrshire 




Browa Swiss 

Dairy Shorthorn. . . 



* Henry and Morrison 



154 larsen's farm dairying 

3. Whether the mother is mature or not. A heifer in- 
variably drops calves that are smaller in size than calves 
dropped by the same cow when mature. This difference in 
the size of calves varies, and in most cases it varies in pro- 
portion to the size of the mother. In the smaller breeds of 
cattle, such as the Guernsey and the Jersey, this difference 
in the size of calves when dropped is not so great. It is 
seldom more than from four to 10 pounds. With the breeds 
composed of larger individuals, this difference is greater. 
For instance, a Holstein heifer's calf will weigh about 85 
pounds. The same cow when mature will produce calves 
that weigh about 100 pounds. Lack of size at birth due to 
age of mothers is usually regained as the individual grows 
to maturity. 

4. Feed and care. This is one of the very important 
factors to observe in developing an individual to its natural 
and maximum size. Especially is this true when the indi- 
vidual is young. An individual stunted from babyhood will 
never recover entirely. A stunted colt is ewe-necked. This 
abnormal form is seldom overcome, even though the indi- 
vidual is well fed later. It is similar with the calf. It is 
then very important that an individual during growing 
years should be fed and cared for in such a way as to have 
constant and uniform normal growth. 

There was a time when it was thought that a calf should 
be kept lean and partially starved while young in order to 
develop into a large producing cow. It was thought that if 
a heifer calf was blocky and showed signs of beefiness, she 
was developing the habit of laying on meat, and that when 
such a female freshened, she would retain that character- 
istic and would not properly convert feed into dairy 
products. 

The production of milk and butter fat is much deeper 
rooted than this. The author has raised calves that were 
large, blocky and fat while young, but as soon as they fresh- 
ened, this was milked off, and they assumed a lean condi- 
tion. The ability to produce milk and butter fat cannot be 



RAISING THE DAIRY COW 



155 



changed to this extent within the time of the life of a calf. 
If the proper milk and fat heredity is in the blood of the 
calf, there is no danger in keeping the heifer calf in good 
flesh. 

5. Time of mating. This is another one of the very im- 
portant factors affecting the size of the individual. Proba- 
bly there is no one factor that so saps the vitality and the 
strength from an immatured animal as does early mother- 
hood. 



Relation 


af Weteht of Cows to ProducHon (Prof. Well) 






No. 

of 

Cows 


.\ver- 

age 
body 
weight 

lbs. 


Fat 
pro- 
duced 
lbs. 


Cost 
of feed 


Net 
returns 


Feed 
units 


PrlOOfd units 


Breed and Weight 


Fat 

pro- 
duced 
lbs. 


Value 
of pro- 
ducts 


HOLSTEINS: 
900 lbs. and under. . . 
901-1000 lbs 


5 

12 
20 
42 
25 
25 
16 


880 
948 
1083 
1181 
1274 
1380 
1556 


415.2 

481.7 
479.3 
479.4 
529.3 
524.5 
566.6 


389.05 
92.95 
87.76 
87.69 
94.44 
91.31 
96.60 


347.26 
63.91 
69.02 
70.47 
77.98 
80.25 
88.01 


7895 
7865 
7550 
7665 
8145 
8002 
8364 


5.26 
6.12 
6.35 
6.26 
6.49 
6.55 
6.77 


31.73 
2 00 


1001-1100 lbs 

1101-1200 lbs 

1201-1300 lbs 

1301-1400 lbs 

1401 lbs. and over. . . 


2.08 
2.06 
2.12 
2.14 
2.21 


GUERNSEYS: 
900 lbs. and under.. . 
901-1000 lbs 


39 
49 
26 
15 
6 


849 

956 

1066 

1155 

1292 


382.0 
420.0 
438.4 
482.0 
440.8 


65.71 

69.82 
74.39 
73.77 
88.57 


53.38 
61.31 
62.81 
76.31 
49.41 


6082 
6273 
6717 
6627 
7366 


6.28 
6.70 
6.53 
7.28 
5.98 


1.96 
2 09 


1001-1100 lbs 

1101-1200lbs 

1201 lbs. and over. . . 


2.04 
2.04 
1.87 


JERSEYS: 
900 lbs. and under. . . 
901-1000 lbs. 


43 

21 

7 

4 


842 

945 

1057 

1200 


346.3 
376.0 
393.0 
419.0 


52.10 

56.75 
50.56 
59.03 


55.76 
60.01 
71.35 
72.27 


5432 
5666 
5271 
6027 


6.37 
6.64 
7.46 
6.95 


1.99 

2 06 


1001-1100 lbs 

1101 lbs. and over 


2.31 
2.18 


ALL BREEDS: 

900 lbs. and under. . . 
901-1000 lbs. 


87 
82 
53 
60 
31 
26 
16 


847 
952 
1071 
1175 
1376 
1379 
1556 


366.2 

417.8 
447.8 
477.7 
506.2 
525.8 
566.6 


60.32 
69.86 
76.28 
82.81 
91.51 
92.15 
96.60 


54.20 
61.36 
66.28 
72.21 
72.01 
79.64 
88.01 


5866 
6351 
6858 
7331 
7875 
8051 
8364 


6.24 
6.58 
6.55 
6.52 
6.43 
6.53 
6.77 


1.95 

2 07 


1001-1100 lbs 

1101-12001bs 

1201-13001bs 

1301-1400lbs 

1401 lbs. and over. . . 


2.09 
2.12 
2.03 
2.13 
2.21 



There are, indeed, some who have advocated early 
mating, chiefly for two reasons. The first is that the calf 
should be getting into the habit of changing feed into milk 
early in life. The mammary gland should have an oppor- 
tunity to develop early, by producing large amounts of milk 
and butter fat. Secondly, early mating has been recom- 



156 larsen's farm dairying 

mended so as not to have the heifer loafing about too long 
without paying for her feed. 

Large cows vs. small cows. — There are large cows 
within a breed and there are also small ones. There have 
been claims made pro and con as to the profitableness of 
small cows versus large cows. Usually these discussions 
have arisen over individuals within the different breeds. 

According to the author's experience, large cows of a 
certain breed are usually larger producers, and more profit- 
able producers, than are the small cows within the same 
breed. 

However, all large cows within a breed are not large pro- 
ducers ; neither are all small cows small producers. Indi- 
viduality is an important factor. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED 

RATION 

Two things are of paramount importance to the dairy 
farmer. First, the amount and kind of feed that goes into 
the cow; secondly, the amount and kind of returns that 
come from her. The feeding of the dairy herd so as to get 
the maximum returns at the least cost is one of the big 
problems confronting every dairyman. 

The question of economic feeding of the dairy cow may 
be studied under the following chief heads : 

1. Balanced Ration. 

2. Succulent Feed. 

3. Amount of Feed. 

4. Cost of Feed. 

Much experimental and investigational work has been 
conducted with the view of determining just the kind of a 
balanced ration that will suit each individual cow. 

A dairy cow uses her food for several purposes : 

1. For milk production. 

2. For body purposes. 

(a) In case of immature cows for body growth. 

(b) In some instances for increase in body weight. 

(c) In case of pregnancy for development of the fetus. 

(d) To keep up body temperature and energy require- 

ments. 

(e) To maintain the body. 

To supply these needs, the cow must have the various 
food constituents in proper amounts, and the ratio of one 
constituent to the other should vary according to the needs 
of the individual cow. 

Composition of feeds. — All feeds are composed of water 
and dry matter. The percentage of each varies greatly. 

157 



158 larsen's farm dairying 

Not all of the dry matter is digestible. The digestibility of 
the different feeds also varies greatly. The digestible part 
of the dry matter is usually referred to as nutrients. They 
are usually put into three classes : 

1. Protein. 

2. Carbohydrates (including chiefly starch, sugar and 
cellulose). 

3. Fat, or ether extract. 

Protein is essential for milk production. It cannot be 
replaced by any other nutrient. It is, therefore, important 
that a dairy cow receives enough protein for milk and 
muscle production, and probably also for stimulating milk 
production. 

Fat and carbohydrates may take each other's place. 
These are the chief sources of energy, fat and heat. For 
these purposes fat is two and one-fourth times as valuable 
as carbohydrates. Before the fat, or ether extract, can be 
considered in the same class as the carbohydrates, it should 
be first multiplied by the factor two and one-fourth. 

If an excess of protein is fed, the surplus may be used 
by the body for the production of energy, but protein is too 
expensive to be used for this purpose ; hence an excess of 
protein should not be fed. At the same time there must be 
enough protein in the ration to supply the needs of the cow. 

Minerals in a cow's ration. — Minerals are necessary in 
feeding a dairy cow, but most feeds contain plenty of 
minerals to supply the various needs. There are, however, 
some feeds that are quite low in their ash content. The dry 
matter of good pasture grass contains about three percent 
of total minerals. The kind of minerals which a feed con- 
tains is of as much importance as the total amount. A table 
in the Appendix gives the composition of the total ash of 
some of the feeds. 

Much important work on the functions of minerals in 
connection with feeding live stock has been done by Dr. 
Forbes and his associates at the Ohio station. According 
to their experiments, when a cow is giving a large flow of 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 159 

milk there is a loss from the body of calcium, magnesium, 
and phosphorus ; that is, a negative balance resulted. When 
these minerals were added to the food separately, even then, 
a negative balance resulted, with the single exception of 
phosphorus. By feeding phosphorus a positive balance was 
obtained. 

Feeds such as corn, wheat, rye, kaffir grain, feterita grain, 
kaoliang grain, and sorghum grain are low in total minerals ; 
while feeds such as wheat bran, linseed oil meal, cottonseed 
meal, oats, malt sprouts, mangel-wurzel, alfalfa hay, and 
cowpea hay are all high in total minerals. In addition, it 
will be noticed that these feeds also run relatively high in 
calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. By studying the table 
in the Appendix, it will be seen that practically all of the 
feeds that are high in protein contain a relatively high 
percentage of minerals. It is not at all improbable that 
some of the good results obtained in feeding heavy protein 
rations to a dairy cow are due to the high percentage of 
minerals which these feeds contain. 

In a paper prepared by Miss J. M. Hoover of the Idaho 
station, it is stated that a cow fed a ration lacking in calcium 
collapsed and died. It was also stated that pigs fed a ration 
lacking in phosphorus became very drowsy. One of them 
slept itself to death. The others, when fed sufficient phos- 
phorus, again became active and normal. 

There is some evidence which indicates that a lack of the 
proper kinds and amount of minerals in a cow's feed may 
produce abortion. 

Cows which have completed large yearly records at times 
become lame, out of shape, and crippled in other ways. 
This may be due to the continuous drain of minerals from 
the body. 

Feeding salt. — All vegetable eating animals require some 
salt in addition to the other minerals in the feed. This point 
has been thoroughly proven. It is not at all improbable 
that for large producing cows it will also be necessary to 



160 larsen's farm dairying 

supply additional calcium, phosphorus and magnesium, in 
addition to that contained in some of the common feeds. 

Vegetable matter contains considerable potassium. The 
supposition is that this element, when taken into the body 
of the cow, robs the system of the sodium chloride, or the 
salt. This theory is strengthened by the fact that meat eat- 
ing animals do not crave salt. Meat is notably low in 
potassium. 

Dr. Babcock of the Wisconsin station carried on an ex- 
periment with the view of ascertaining the results of not 
feeding salt to a dairy cow. The cows which received no 
salt became weak, poor of flesh, and rough of hair. The 
cows receiving salt and otherwise on the same feed remained 
in good condition. The cows that did not receive any salt 
in the ration greatly craved this substance. From this ex- 
periment Dr. Babcock concluded that three-fourths of an 
ounce of salt should be fed daily to a dairy cow per 1000 
pounds of live weight, and in addition six-tenths of an 
ounce for each 20 pounds of milk produced. 

It has been quite customary to feed salt in limited 
amounts once or twice per month to the herd. This is not 
sufficient. By this system, the larger and stronger animals 
in the herd probably eat more than they should have at one 
time, and the young stock and more timid members of the 
herd do not receive enough. Too much salt at one time will 
in most cases produce scours or other digestive disturbances,. 
The salt should be fed in such a manner and in such quanti- 
ties as to give all of the animals in the herd free access to 
salt at all times. This applies to calves and young stock as 
well as to the cows in milk. 

This salt for the herd may be fed in a long water-tight 
trough, raised about two feet above the ground and placed 
on solid posts. If the trough is not water-tight, there is too 
much waste of salt. During a heavy rain it will dissolve in 
the water and leak away. All calf pens and box stalls 
should be provided with special salt boxes, so as to give the 
animals free access to it at all times. 



Feeding the dairy herd a balanced ration l6l 

Rock salt placed in the yards and in the pasture is not 
alone sufficient. Pieces of rock salt are desirable in addi- 
tion to barrel salt. When cows are full of feed, they often 
get much consolation from licking a piece of rock salt. 

Cows which stay in the stanchion for any length of time 
may have some small salt brickettes fastened on the 
stanchion frame in front. These salt brickettes are not 
nearly so hard as is rock salt. 

For milk production. — The amount and percent of the 
total food consumed in milk production varies with the 
individual cow, with the amount of milk given, and with 
the richness of the milk. A small cow giving a large amount 
of rich milk evidently uses a relatively large percentage of 
feed for milk production. A large cow giving a small 
amount of milk uses a less percentage of the consumed 
nutrients for milk. Some cows will use only about 30 per- 
cent of the consumed feed for milk, while others will use 
as much as 70 percent of the consumed nutrients for milk. 
The average dairy cow uses about one-half of the consumed 
feed for milk, and the other half for body purposes. 

The more milk a cow produces, the narrower nutritive 
ratio she needs. In other words, the more milk the cow 
produces, the more protein in relation to the other nutrients 
the ration must contain. This is true in respect to the 
relative amount as well as to the total amount. 

The nutritive ratio needed for milk production alone is 
about one pound of protein to four pounds of carbohy- 
drates, or carbohydrate equivalent. The ration needed for 
body maintenance is about one pound of protein to eight 
pounds of carbohydrates. Assuming that a cow uses about 
one-half of the feed for the body and the other half for 
milk production, the theoretical nutritive ratio for the 
average dairy cow should be about one pound of protein to 
six pounds of carbohydrates (1:6). This, however, varies 
according to the individuality of the dififerent cows. The 
feeder must carefully study the cows and should then feed 
them according to their individual characteristics. The 



162 larsen's farm dairying 

feeder must not only know the different adaptations and 
characteristics of the cows, but he must also be thoroughly 
familiar with the different kinds of feeds. He should know 
the general chemical composition, the general physical 
characteristics, and the general physiological effects of the 
different feeds. 

For body purposes. — The amount and percentage of the 
food consumed, which is used by the cow for the various 
body purposes, depends much on how the cow is handled. 

If a cow must walk a mile or more to and from pasture 
every morning and night, this will require considerable 
extra energy, and energy comes from food. 

If a cow is forced to grind her own grain, or to eat coarse, 
unpalatable foods, much energy will be required for masti- 
cation and digestion. This will also be a drain on the food 
eaten to supply the body. 




FIG. 57 — These cows wero in the cornstalks when the temperature was 
20 degrees F. below zero. 

If a cow is compelled to stand out-of-doors in cold 
weather, 20 or 30 degrees below zero, and probably "rustle" 
her own food in the cornstalk field, much heat from the body 
will escape. This would be an additional factor influencing 
the amount and kind of feed needed to maintain the normal 
body temperature of the dairy cow. 

Likewise, if a cow is compelled to drink ice cold water, 
as discussed under a separate head, more feed will be re- 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 



163 



quired to produce the extra heat needed for warming the 
water. 

A cow developing a calf, or fetus, uses some of the con- 
sumed feeds for this purpose, although experiments by Prof. 
Eckles of the Missouri station indicate that this rec^uired 
amount for developing the calf is so small that from an 
experimental point of view it could scarcely be determined. 
One thing is sure, that something cannot be produced from 
nothing. A calf weighs about 80 pounds when born. This 





M 


<^^ 




. ^.aJ 


"jB 




■P^^^— iT-^ 


° Ml 


^^B 






P^21l3^ 


t^.^ "^K 






86 B B fL,| 1 ° 


0Bn 




V 






— --^^^ 


^mX^ 




^««»i 




^. "' " , 




,* 


. • "■ * -»■* .^ ' ,. ' : *-* 


" 



FIG. 58 — This barn, though inexpensive, is comfortable and convenient. It 
shelters a herd of excellent pure-bred dairy cattle. 

body would represent, approximately speaking, 30 to 40 
pounds of dry matter which can have its source only in 
feeds given the cow. 

Most of the food used by the body of the cow undoubt- 
edly goes to maintain and support the work of the various 
organs. A cow producing a large amount of milk and 
butter fat works hard. Her lungs must breathe, her heart 
must beat, her digestive organs must perform constantly, 
and the various parts of the body flesh must be maintained 
at all times. 



164 

Young cows need food not only for maintaining the body, 
but also for growth. Some matured cows gain in flesh. 
This also would require additional food for body purposes. 

Classification of the chief feeds.— Generally speaking, 
all feeds may be classified under two heads : 

1. The principal feeds rich in protein, or in the chief 
muscle and milk producing substances are as follows : 

Concentrates : Oats, bran, linseed meal, gluten feeds, 
malt sprouts, brewers' grain, buckwheat middlings and bran, 
cottonseed meal, cake, and feed, beans, peas, distillers' 
grain, dried blood, and tankage. ' 

Roughage: Alfalfa hay, clover hay, pea hay, bean hay, 
green oats, grass, green clover, and green alfalfa. 

2. The chief feeds rich in carbohydrates and fats, or in 
the fat, heat, and energy producing substances are: 

Concentrates : Corn, barley, emmer, rye, wheat, hominy, 
buckwheat, kaffir grain, milo grain, feterita grain, kaoliang 
grain, broom corn seed, millet seed, sorghum grain, and 
molasses. 

Roughage: Timothy hay, millet hay, prairie hay, corn 
fodder, corn silage, milo maize, kaffir corn, kaoliang, cane, 
timothy grass, and the various straws. 

The above comprise only the chief feeds in use. The 
composition table in the Appendix is more complete. 

The author has seen many dairy cows receive no otHer 
feed than a few ears of corn twice each day and all of the 
prairie hay they would eat. From the above classification 
it will be seen that both of these feeds belong to the group 
of feeds rich in fat, heat, and energy producing substances. 
Such a ration wnll not contain enough protein to yield a 
maximum amount of milk. Probably the cow in time and 
to some extent may adapt herself to such a ration. It is 
necessary, however, for a cow fed on such a ration to con- 
sume too much fat and carbohydrates in order to obtain 
enough protein to satisfy the demand of the system, and. 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 



165 



secondly, the amount of milk from a given amount of feed 
is reduced. 

A person selects or balances his own ration at the tabh. 
He makes his own selection according to the craving of th3 
system. A dairy cow is usually tied and her ration is 
measured or weighed out for her. She must take what is 
given her or go without feed. She seldom has the oppor- 
tunity to make her own selection according to the natural 
craving of her system. 

The need of a properly balanced ration is apparent to 
every individual. He knows that in cold weather the sys- 




FIG. 59 — This field produced three tons of alfalfa hfy per acre. The dairy 
farmer should grow his protein feeds. 

tem demands foods rich in fat, sugar, and starch, or foods 
that produce an abundance of heat and energy. During 
hot weather a person's demand is rather for chicken, beef- 
steak and cool drinks, or foods that produce muscle and 
energy, and less fat and heat. This illustrates that the 
system needs foods that are adapted to the work and the 
conditions. It is similar with the dairy cow. 

Calculation of balanced rations by use of feeding 
standards. — A vast amount of investigational work has 



166 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



been done in the United States with a view of obtaining a 
feeding standard suitable for dairy cows. Several standards 
have been proposed. They are almost as numerous as are 
the investigators. There are no conflicts among the investi- 
gators as to the principles involved, but the data varies. This 
difference in results is, undoubtedly, due first to a variation 
in the adaptation and individual characteristics of the cows 
used in the different experiments ; secondly, to the differ- 
ent climatic and other conditions surrounding the cows ; 
and thirdly, to the different physical characteristics of the 
feeds and to the composition of the feeds grown under 
widely different conditions. No one feeding standard will 
be equally accurate under all conditions and with different 




FIG. 60 — Alfalfa hay ready to be hauled into the barn for winter feed. 



COWS. At the same time, feeding standards are very helpful 
to the inexperienced feeder and helpful in formulating trial 
rations for cows. 

During the last few years, experiments have been con- 
ducted and are now in progress which show that there is a 
difference in the efficiency of the same kind of constituents 
in the different feeds.* 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 167 

For instance Professors Hart and Humphrey of the Wis- 
consin station report that in experiments with dairy cows 
they found that the proteins of milk have an efficiency of 
60 percent for milk production. The proteins of corn have 
an efficiency of only 40, and the proteins of wheat have an 
efficiency of 35 percent. The nutritive ratio of the ration^ 
fed in this experiment was 1 : 8. During these experiments, 
the protein of milk was the only one which showed a posi- 
tive balance ; that is, the cows in the experiments produced 
less protein in the milk and other products than was given 
to them in the ration. The cows utilized a portion of the 
protein for their body. These particular experiments open 
up an entirely new and important field in the selection of 
feeds for dairy cows. 

Prof. Haecker, of the University of Minnesota, finds 
that a dairy cow needs seven one-hundredths of a pound of 
protein, seven-tenths of a pound of carbohydrates and one 
one-hundredth of a pound of fat to maintain 100 pounds of 
live weight. From this data the required maintenance ration 
for any size cow may be calculated. 

This standard also provides definitely the amount of each 
nutrient for each pound of milk of different richness. The 
average richness of cow's milk is about four percent butter 
fat. The required nutrients to produce one pound of milk 
are : 0.0457 of a pound of protein, 0.214 of a pound of 
carbohydrates, and 0.0159 of a pound of fat. If the 
nutrients required to produce one pound of milk containing 
four percent of butter fat are known, then it is plain that the 
amount of nutrients for any number of pounds of four 
percent milk can be calculated. 

Example. — Calculate a ration for a cow weighing 1200 
pounds and producing 40 pounds of four percent milk. (See 
table in Appendix.) 



* L. Mendell r.nd F. B. Osborn, Yale. 

* Hart and McCollum, Wisconsin station. 



168 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 





Lbs. 
Protein 


Lbs. 
Carbo- 
hydrates 


Lbs. 
Fat 


Nutrients for maintaining 100 pounds of live weight. 
Nutrients for maintaining 1200 pounds of live weight 

Nutrients for one pound of four percent milk 

Nutrients for 40 pounds of four percent milk 


0.07 
0.84 
0.0467 
1.86 


0.7 
8.4 
0.214 
8.56 


0.01 
0.12 
0.0159 
0.64 


Total nutrients for maintainance and for milk 


2.70 


16.96 


0.76 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


protein 


carbohydrates 


fat 


1.650 


5.940 


0.180 


0.315 


3.955 


0.245 


0.237 


2.000 


0.129 


0.552 


2.840 


0.252 


0.258 


0.800 


0.068 



The following ration will be needed to supply these nu- 
trient requirements: (See table in Appendix.) 

15 pounds of alfalfa hay containing 

35 " " silage 

3 " " ground corn " 

6 " " " oats 

2 " " bran " 

Total nutrients 3.012 15.535 0.874 

The nutrients in the above ration are not exactly the same 
as the requirements. The protein is a little in excess. The 
carbohydrates are lacking a little but there is an excess of 
fat. The latter Is two and one-fourth times as valuable as 
the carbohydrates and is therefore carbohydrate equivalent. 
A small excess of protein may also be used for energy. The 
ration should contain enough protein. So far as is known, 
the carbohydrates and fats cannot take the place of protein, 
but protein may take the place of carbohydrates. 

The nutritive ratio of the above ration is 1 : 5.8. 

This nutritive ratio is calculated as follows: Multiply 
the fat by 2.25 to convert the fat into carbohydrate equiv- 
alent. Then add this product to the carbyhydrates. Divide 
this sum by the protein and the quotient represents the 
pounds of carbohydrate equivalent to one pound of pro- 
tein in the ration. 

0.874X21/4 equals 1.9665 ; 1.9665 plus 15.535 equals 17.50. 

17.5-^3 equals 5.83. 

The nutritive ratio of this ration is therefore, 1 : 5.83. 

When the carbohydrates or the second number is large, 
the nutritive ratio is wide, when it is small or below six 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 169 

the ration is said to h'd narrow. The more milk a cow gives, 
the narrower the ration or the more protein in proportion 
to carbohydrates is required. The table in the Appendix 
gives the data for calculating rations for any kind of a cow 
according to the Haecker standard. 

The Armsby feeding standard is based upon more recent 
investigation.* This feeding standard expresses the nu- 
trients in feeds as digestible true protein and net energy 
value. The latter is expressed in therms. One therm is equal 
to 1000 large calories. One calorie is the amount of heat re- 
quired to raise one kilogram of water one degree Centi- 
grade, or about the heat required to raise one pound of 
water four degrees Fahrenheit. The protein is pure protein 
and does not include the amides. 

According to the Armsby standard, to maintain a 1200- 
pound cow a day requires six-tenths of a pound of pro- 
tein and seven therms. To produce one pound of milk con- 
taining four percent of butter fat and 13 percent of total 
solids requires 0.049 of a pound of digestible protein and 
0.27 of a therm. If a ration is calculated according to this 
standard, for a cow of similar weight and production as 
was used in connection with the Haecker standard, the 
following ration would be required for body maintenance : 

Protein Therms 

For body maintenance 1200 pomids live weight 0.6 7.0 

For 40 pounds of four percent milk !.<)() 10.8 

Total required for maintenance and milk 2. .56 17.8 



Using the same kind of feed and the same amoimt of 
each kind as in the previous examples the ration stands 
as follows : 



* Bulletin 114, Pennsylvania station. 

* Bulletin 4.59, B. A. I., U. S. Dept. of Agri. 



170 larsen's dairy farming 

Protein Carbohydrates 

15 pounds of alfalfa hay 1.00 5.13 

35 " " corn silage 0.21 5.56 

3 " " ground corn 0.21 2.67 

6 '' . " " oats 0.52 4.05 

2 " " wheat bran 0.22 1.06 

Total in trial ration 2.22 18.47 

It will be noticed that the above ration is exactly like the 
one provided according to the Haecker standard. Compar- 
ing the total amount of protein and net energy Avith the re- 
quirements according to the Armsby standard the above 
ration lacks about three-tenths of a pound of protein, and 
contains a little more than a therm too much net energy 
value. To remedy this some of the corn is subtracted and 
some linseed meal added. We then have the following which 
provides about the nutrients required by the Armsby stand- 
ard for a cow weighing 1200 pounds and giving 40 pounds 
of four percent milk daily : 

Protein Therms 

15 pounds of alfalfa hay 1.06 5.13 

35 " " corn silage 0.21 5.56 

2 " " ground corn 0.14 1.78 

6 " " " oats 0.52 4.05 

2 " " wheat bran 0.22 1.06 

1 pound of linseed meal (O. P.) 0.28 0.89 

Total 2.43 18.47 

All tables needed in connection with the Armsby feeding 
standard may be found in the Appendix. 

In connection with feeding standards it should be stated 
that an ideal and final ration cannot be calculated for a cow. 
The feeder must understand his cows and his feeds, and 
feed accordingly. A calculated ration is at best only a trial 
ration. 



CHAPTER IX. 

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT 
FEED 

A succulent feed is one that contains a large percentage 
of water combined in a natural way in the food. A succulent 
feed of some kind is important for the best health of the 
cow and for maximum economic milk production. A dairy 
cow needs more water than probably any other animal. 

When this water, or a large portion of it, is combined 
with the feed the entering of it into the body is gradual, and 
it is continuous with the eating. It can readily be seen that 
when water is thus taken with the food the consistency of 
the food when masticated is more uniform. The movement 
through the digestive tract is more regular. It is laxative 
in character, and the mastication or bringing the food into 
condition for digestion is more perfect. 

AMien no succulent feed is fed, the dry feed and the water 
go into the body separately and at irregular intervals. This 
means an irregular tax upon the digestive organs of the 
cow. It means greater energy requirements in mastication. 
Undoubtedly, a feeder can successfully feed a dairy cow 
her dry feed and water separately, but it requires more 
skill and attention on the part of the feeder. With the ir- 
regular attention given to the dairy cows on many farms, 
succulency in the ration is of special importance. 

Pasture Grasses 

The ideal succulent feed is, undoubtedly, good pasture 
grass. The degree of succulency of grasses varies with the 
season. In early spring pasture grasses contain from 
65 to 80 percent of water. Later in the summer the water 
in the various pasture grasses decreases to about 55 to 65 
percent. 

171 



172 LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 

Another noticeable thing about these grasses is that the 
further they grow towards maturity the wider their nu- 
tritive ratio or the more carbohydrates in relation to the 
protein do they contain. Blue grass, before heading, has 
a nutritive ratio of 1 : 3.3, when headed out 1 : 6.5, and 
after bloom it is 1 : 12. Likewise with alfalfa before bloom 
its nutritive ratio is 1 : 2.3, in bloom 1 : 3.5, and after bloom 
it is 1 : 6.6. 

The advantages of good pasture are apparent when the 
cows are turned from dry winter feed on to pasture in the 
spring. The milk flow increases. The cow sheds the old coat 
of hair. The vigor and brightness of the whole herd are 
improved, and their general physical being and poise are 
bettered. 

For at least the Northwest, or the central Northwest, 
there are several things that militate against the complete 
success of pasture for dairy cows. In the first place, pasture 
on high price farming land is not conducive to highest re- 
turns. It requires about two acres to produce enough pas- 
ture for one cow for the whole season (about five months). 
If these two acres wtvQ plowed up and put into corn for 
silage, at least 20 tons of corn fodder could be produced. 
This when made into silage contains enough dry matter and 
nutrient equivalents to feed one cow for about 18 months ; 
whereas, if left in pasture the two acres will provide only 
enough feed for one cow for about five months. 

Then again, pasture cannot be depended upon every sea- 
son. For about two months in the early summer, pastures 
are first class. After that drought often sets in, and feed 
becomes short. The weather is hot, and flies and mosquitoes 
are troublesome. As a result the cows decrease in the milk 
flow and often lose much in body flesh during the latter 
part of the pasture season. 

When these conditions obtain, then the pasture should be 
supplemented with other feeds, or a system of partial soil- 
ing should be adopted. In the "Corn Belt" pastures are 
usually supplemented with green corn. Some feed green al- 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 173 

falfa or green sweet clover. The best supplement to pasture, 
and the cheapest and the handiest and the most healthful to 
feed, is silage. 

The question has often been raised, "Should a dairy cow 
be fed grain in connection with pasture?" So long as the 
cows are doing just ordinary work, or so long as economic 
production only is sought, it does not pay to feed expensive 
grain in connection with good pasture. If maximum pro- 
duction is desired, at any cost, and the cows are large pro- 
ducers, then a proper selection of grain should be fed in 
connection with the pasture. 

Cows should not be turned out to pasture too early in the 
spring. The weather at times is cold and wet. The cows 
may thus suffer cold, especially during nights. 

In the spring the pasture ground is many times wet and 
sogg}% and the tramping of the cows will spoil much of the 
grass and make the ground rough. 

So early in the spring grass is scant and many times 
weeds are plentiful. The latter usually make an earlier 
start than does the grass. On the prairie, or native sod, 
wnld onion and garlic appear early in the spring. These 
weeds, when eaten by the cows, taint the milk very badly. 

It is a recognized fact that a plant grows from the top as 
w^ell as from the roots. If the cows are turned on the grass 
very early, they keep the grass down and prevent its proper 
growth. 

If the grass is not allowed to make some extra growth 
during the spring, when conditions are most favorable, 
there will be no reserve food for later in the season, when 
conditions for the growth are less favorable. 

Also a cow turned out very early in the spring, before 
there is much grass, loses her appetite for dry feed, and 
there is not enough feed in the pasture. When she gets a 
taste of grass, then her appetite for it becomes persistent. 
It is also thought that a cow's teeth are affected by grass so 
that she cannot bear to chew hay and other dry feeds. 



174 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Soiling Crops 

Pasture is not the only summer feed that is succulent. 
Various crops may be sown, cut green, and fed to the cows. 
This green feed may be cut, hauled, and fed to the cows 
in the barn. By this system the cows are kept in the barn 
during the feeding, and let out for exercise only. This 
involves considerable labor. It is difficult to keep the cows 
and barn clean. Green feed is laxative, and cows on green 
feed do not eat much hay. The green feed also attracts 
many flies into the barn. Considering these things, this 




FIG. 61— Haulinpr a mixture of prreen oats and Canadian field peas to b herd 
of dairy cows. One load per day was hauled. 

manner of feeding soiling crops to the herd of dairy cows 
is rather impracticable, except when practiced in a small 
way or where labor is plentiful. 

The cows may also be kept in the yard and the soiling 
crop be fed in a rack. Each morning a load of this green 
feed is cut and hauled and put into the rack. The cows thus 
have free access to it and at the same time are kept in the 
fresh air and in a dry, well-drained vard. No additional 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 



175 



labor is required after the feed is once placed in the rack. 
For a complete system of soiling this is regarded as the 
most practicable one. 

A partial system of soiling is often practiced. Green 
crops are fed only when the feed in the pasture becomes 
short. By this system the green crop, usually corn, is 
scattered on the ground and the cattle pick it up from there. 
Some of the feed is wasted, but feeding in this manner does 
away with the labor involved in pitching it into the hay- 
rack, and where the corn is close to the pasture it does away 
with the labor of loading the feed into the wagon. 




FIG. 62 This lot of nine cows was fed soilinj? crops in the hayrack during 
a whole summer. 

In Denmark, where soiling crops are used extensively, 
the cows are tethered in long rows in the field. In some 
instances the cows will be moved forward every couple of 
hours. They are thus permitted to eat the crop from the 
ground themselves. In other places the soiling crop is cut 
with a scythe or mowing machine and some of the feed is 
placed in front of each cow. The common soiling crop used 
in Denmark is a mixture of oats and buckwheat, or oats and 
field peas. 

The author carried on an experiment one summer with 
27 cows, divided into three lots. Nine were fed the green 



176 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



crop in the barn, nine were fed in a hayrack in the open 
yard, and nine were kept in a pasture. The green crops fed 
were a mixture of oats and peas, green alfalfa, and corn. 
Only the first and second crops of the alfalfa were used. 
The third alfalfa crop was too light, necessitating too much 
labor, especially considering that when the third crop of 
alfalfa is ready to cut, the corn crop is just in the right 
condition for this purpose. The cows fed in the rack in the 
lot did the best and made the most economic production. 

The amount of green feed that a cow will eat depends 
much on the cow and also on the crop. Generally speaking, 
a mature cow will eat about 110 pounds of green feed per 
day. 

The table below shows the average production of the 
green feeds raised on the South Dakota state college dairy 
farm. For soiling purposes a system of oats and Canadian 
field peas, alfalfa, and corn is best. The first crop of 
alfalfa is ready to use about June 10. The latter part of 
June, the mixture of oats and peas may be cut and fed. By 
seeding this crop about two weeks apart, the oats and pea 
crop can be used for a considerable time and still remain at 





Green vie! i 


Dry matter 


Digestible 




Crop 


per acre, lbs. 


per acre, lbs. 


(D. M.) per 
acre, lbs. 


Date harvested 


Oats and peas . 


30,82J 


6,722 


4,253 


June 25 and later 


followed by 










millet 


7,940 


2,190 


1,212 


Sept. 10 " " 


Total per acre 










oats, peas anc 










millet 


38,760 


8.912 


5,465 




Corn 


25,540 


5,593 


3,754 


Aug. 20 and later 


Alfalfa: 








1st crop 


10,580 


2,647 


1.315 


June 15 and later 


2d ." 


9,760 


2,444 


1.382 


July IS " " 


3d " 


5,080 


1,265 


771 


Sept. 5 " 


Total per acre 










of alfalfa . . . 


25,420 


6.356 


3.468 





the right stage of maturity. If there is an excess of this 
crop, it can be cut for hay or left for maturity. This crop, 
if not too heavy and tangled, may be cut with a self-binder. 
If the bundles are not tied too tight and too large, they will 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 177 

dry out in the shock, and it makes the very best of hay for 
winter feeding. The second crop of alfalfa may be used 
after about July 10. After the middle of August the corn 
crop may be used until about the middle of September, 
sometimes longer, depending on the frost. 

The yield reported in the table above is probably greater 
than can be. expected from average land. The land on the 
college dairy farm is rich and in a high state of fertility. 

On account of dry weather during the month of July, 
the millet crop failed once in four years. The data in the 
table, therefore, represent the average of only three years. 
The remainder of the table gives the average for four 
successive years. 

The oats and peas were taken off the land for soiling 
crops or for silage, or for hay, about July first. This same 
ground was then thoroughly disked and seeded with millet. 
In this manner two crops of green feeds were obtained 
from the same ground. The latter crop was usually cut for 
hay about September 10, or about the time that frost usually 
appears. 

In accordance with this yield, one acre will produce 
enough feed in the form of soiling crops for two cows for 
about Ay2 months. The greatest drawback to the general 
use of soiling crops is probably the extra labor involved. 
Its chief advantages are large yield (which means a saving 
of land or the keeping of more cows) and cleaning the land 
of weeds. 

At the Wisconsin station, it has been proven that one 
acre used for soiling crops is equal in ability to produce 
food to 23/2 acres of pasture. 

Roots 

For winter feeding there is probably no succulent feed 
better than roots. If a cow is on full feed for maximum 
production, roots of some kind are almost indispensable. 

Roots, however, are expensive to raise. Much labor is 
necessary in weeding them and hoeing them, and this labor 



178 larsen's farm dairying 

conies during the part of the summer when the average 
farmer is busiest with the other field crops. 

Many dairy farms do not have a suitable place in which 
to store roots so as to keep them from spoiling and at the 
same time to protect them from frost. 

A cellar under the barn, or bins in the center of the barn, 
where the temperature does not vary too much, and does 
not go below freezing, are suitable for storing roots. 

In spite of these disadvantages, every cow owner should 
plan to raise a small patch of roots each year, even if not 
more than can be used for test cows and for cows that may 
become ill and lack in appetite. 

The author has raised and fed mangel-wurzels, sugar 
mangel-wurzels, carrots and turnips. Of all these, he pre- 
fers the mangel-wurzels. A larger and surer yield is ob- 
tained if properly tended. In average years the yield of 
mangel-wurzels should be about 22 to 30 tons per acre. 
These roots are also easily harvested. The long taproot 
characteristic of the other kinds is not present in the mangel- 
wurzels. A large percentage of these roots grow above 
ground and they can be pulled out by hand without the use 
of a digger or plow. 

When Hester Aaltje Korndyke made the world's seven- 
day record for production, 621 pounds of milk and 37.4 
pounds of butter fat, she consumed daily about 130 pounds 
of roots. This may be regarded as about the maximum 
amount of roots that a cow can consume per day. A good 
feed of roots per day is about 50 pounds. 

When roots are fed to individual cows on heavy feed for 
maximum production they are usually sliced lengthwise and 
the grain poured over the roots. When fed to the herd, 
they may be given whole. Cows soon learn to eat them 
that way. Some dairy farmers put them into a wooden 
box and cut them with an S-shaped knife. The resulting 
pieces are of different shapes and sizes. In some instances 
pieces of roots will lodge in the gullet or throat of the cows 
and choke them. 



FEEDING TPIE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 179 

In such cases it is necessary to remove the lodged piece 
of root. At times it may be dislodged by gently manipulat- 
ing the throat on the outside with the hands. If this does 
not remove the root, take a piece of one-inch rope, untwist 
about one inch at the end and tie a piece of cord around it 
about one inch from the end, so as to form a soft tuft at 
the end. Then insert the end of the rope into the gullet and 
gently work it until the piece of root is dislodged. Some 
have accomplished the same by the use of a broom handle, 
but the rope is flexible, safe, and much easier on the cow. 

Special root slicing machines are now on the market. 
These machines are rapid and efficient. They can be pur- 
chased at a reasonable price. Where roots are fed regularly 
on a large scale, it pays to have one of these machines. 

Mashes 

According to the previous definition of a succulent feed, 
mashes cannot be regarded as succulent feeds. Neverthe- 
less, they will be briefly considered here. The author has, 
as a rule, not practiced feeding grain in the form of mash, 
yet with some cows mashes are very successful. It is not 
all cows that like to eat grain in this form, but usually they 
learn to like it. Aged cows with poor teeth can usually be 
made to improve in production by being fed grain in the 
form of a mash. Such cows also keep up their flesh better, 
a fact which shows that they digest the grain better in that 
form than when dry. 

A mash is prepared by first weighing out the proper 
amount of grain in a water-tight container and then pouring 
scalding hot water over it. Enough water is added to 
moisten all of the grain and enough more so that some water 
is standing on top. This moistened or scalded grain is then 
left to steep 10 or 12 hours, or until the next feeding time, 
when it is fed. New feed is then prepared again. 

In the absence of any strictly succulent feed, with an 
aged cow, and one that likes it, and with an individual that 
warrants the extra labor, such a grain mash is desirable. 



180 larsen's farm dairying 

Wet brewers' grain is a good milk-producing feed, but it 
must be fed fresh. It should not be hauled and piled up 
any length of time before it is fed. Brewers' grain kept in 
this condition will soon sour and spoil. When fed in a 
spoiled condition it taints the milk. It also produces a 
strong undesirable odor around the premises. 

Dried beet pulp is used very extensively by dairy farmers. 
This is a by-product of the sugar beet factories. When 
this dry beet pulp has been steeped in water for a short 
time it is a splendid feed. Use one part of dried pulp to 
four parts of water. Cold v/ater is generally used. Allow 
it to stand until the pulp is entirely saturated before feed- 
ing. This latter feed, as with most mashes, cows usually 
have to learn to like. When they once learn to eat it, they 
become very fond of it. Dried beet pulp is laxative in its 
effect. 

It is important that all mashes be made up daily. Do not 
allow them to stand around and ferment, and do not mix 
them in an old dirty container. 

Silage 

For a full year, and one year after another, there is 
nothing that can take the place of silage as an economic, 
handy, and healthful succulent feed. As a feed, silage 
serves the cow in much the same way as canned fruit and 
vegetables serve the household. Practically any of the 
coarse feeds may be cut and stored in the silo. A silo, then, 
is a container and preserver of moist rough feed. This con- 
tainer keeps stored feed from coming in contact with the 
air, and thus preserves it. 

The feed stored in the silo is called silage. This feed 
usually consists of crops harvested and cut just previous 
to maturity, while still green. However, it should be under- 
stood that rough dry feeds may also be stored in the form 
of silage by adding the proper amount of water. 

It should also be understood that it is not absolutely 
necessary to cut the green crops into small particles in order 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 



181 





5)LA5£-GRAIN 

FOR 
DAIRY COWS 



AVERAGE DAILY 
RATION 

Consumed by each covm 
fed the silage ration 



T^ 



t: 



^r^x 



to obtain silage. The author saw a whole field of barley 
struck by a hailstorm just previous to maturity. What 
remained was cut and all of it was raked up and put into a 
pit silo without being cut in pieces. This made useful feed. 
It is also possible to pack corn bundles into a silo and have 
them keep without running them through a silage cutter. 
Green corn bundles have been stacked outdoors and good 
silage resulted. However, much of the 
corn fodder spoils. Except in emergencies, 
however, the crop for silage should be cut. 
Chief advantages of 
i-i:i'!| silage. — The chief ad- 

vantages of silage for 
the dairy farmer are: 

1. The crop for the 
silo is sure. Such a 
crop is not seriously 
injured by late spring, 
early fall, storms, or 
by wet or dry seasons. 

2. All of the corn 
plant stored as silage 
is utilized. About 62 
percent of the full 

value of the corn is in the ear and about 38 percent is in the 
stalk and leaves. Without the silo, most of this latter is 
wasted. Considering the succulency, the increased digesti- 
bility, and palatability, some authorities have stated that the 
cornstalks in the silage equal the ears in the crib for feeding 
purposes. The silo puts rough feeds into a form which 
cows and young stock can handle most economically. 

3. More feed can be raised to the acre in the form of 
silage. This is true in the first place because corn intended 
for the silo can be planted thickly on rich or well-manured 
ground. If the land is not weedy the corn can be drilled 
in, and thus yield on an average from Ij/ to two tons more 
feed per acre than would otherwise be the case. In the 



AVERAGE DAILY 

RATION 
Coniumedbyedchcow 
fedthesfecialgrainrahan 



FIG. 63 — Showing economy of silage in a 
ration for dairy cows. (Ohio Exp. Sta.) 



182 larsen's farm dairying 

second place, a larger variety of corn, though not of the 
extremely large kind, can be planted. On the South Dakota 
state college dairy farm the average tonnage per acre for 
the last five years is about 12 tons. The highest yield ever 
produced was on a heavily manured five-acre patch, which 
yielded 17 tons of silage corn per acre. The crop was so heavy 
that the cornbinder could not cut it without much bother. 

4. Feed in the form of silage can be stored in less space 
than can any other form of roughage. Approximately 
speaking, one ton of hay occupies 400 cubic feet of space. 
A ton of silage occupies only about 50 cubic feet, or an 
eighth as much space. In this connection it should be 
stated that a given volume of silage contains less dry matter 
than does an equal volume of hay. Comparing the two on 
a basis of dry matter, about twice as much feed can be 
stored in the form of silage as in the form of hay in a given 
space. A ton of hay, occupying about 400 cubic feet of 
space, contains about 1800 pounds of dry matter. Eight 
tons of silage, occupying about an equal space, contains about 
3200 pounds of dry matter, or very nearly twice the amount 
that is stored in the form of hay in a similar amount of 
space. 

5. Silage furnishes a succulent feed that may be used any 
time during the year. This is of special value in connection 
w^ith the dairy herd. Silage is of special value as a winter 
feed and during the late summer as a supplement to pasture. 
One may stop feeding it any time, or begin feeding it any 
time. Silage may be kept over from one season to another, 
and from one year to another, making it valuable as a hold- 
over feed from a season of large crops to a season of small 
crops. 

6. Corn to be put into the silo may be taken ofiF from the 
ground early in the fall, thus clearing the land and putting it 
in good shape to be plowed and prepared for a succeeding 
crop. In this connection it might be stated that some ex- 
periments tend to show that the vitality of the weed seeds 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 183 

is destroyed in the silo. This, however, has not heen com- 
pletely proven. 

7. Silage is healthful and palatable. If it is in good con- 
dition, and properly fed, it is a regulator as well as a nour- 
ishing food. Malnutrition is minimized in a herd receiving 
silage as compared w^ith a herd receiving dry feed entirely. 
Silage is appetizing to a cow. Young stock receiving silage 
will consume considerable good straw. When no silage is 
fed, cattle eat very little straw without being starved to it. 
For dairy cows, alfalfa hay and corn silage make almost an 
ideal combination of rough feed. 

It has been stated at times that silage rots the teeth of a 
cow and wears out a cow's digestive organs. The writer has 
fed corn silage to the South Dakota state college dairy hsrd 
for 12 consecutive years, and throughout the whole year, 
the herd having no pasture. The aged cows in the herd are 
today in at least as good condition as are other cows of 
similar age in this community that have had no silage. 

It is entirely probable that aside from the nutrients, the 
lactic acid and other fermentative products have very 
desirable effects on the digestion, absorption, and assimila- 
tion of the food of a cow. Normal corn silage contains 
about lyz percent of acid. A cow eating about 35 pounds 
of silage per day consumes about eight ounces of pure acid 
daily. Undoubtedly, this acts as a subduing force to un- 
desirable fermentation in the digestive tract. 

Filling the silo. — During the last 10 years tne writer has 
been experimenting with the use of the different crops for 
silage. The following crops have been grown, stored as 
silage, and fed to the dairy herd: Various kinds of dent 
corn, dent corn seeded together with soy beans and cowpeas, 
kaffir corn, milo maize, amber cane, Sudan grass, and a 
mixture of oats and Canadian field peas. Without going 
into detail in respect to results, it may be stated that the best 
•success was obtained with the dent corn. Of the various 
kinds of dent corn tried, a variety known as the Climax, 
grown to maturity in the southern part of the state of South 



184 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 




FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 



185 



Dakota, has proven to be the heaviest and most consistent 
yielder. In most seasons this corn will mature in this 
latitude. 

Of the various other crops grown, milo maize and kaffir 
corn proved to be second best. These crops are especially 
suitable in the semi-arid sections. None of the cane varie- 
ties prodiice as palatable silage, nor do they produce as 
heavy a yield as the corn. 

The mixture of oats and field peas in favorable seasons 
yields very heavily. If this crop is not hauled at once after 
cutting, while green and tender, it does not cut well in the 




FIG. 65 — Cutting the corn with a com binder. One man and team cut about 
eight acres in one day. 

silage cutter. Unless the knives are very sharp, there is a 
tendency for this crop to be cut too long, and for it to wind 
around the knives and various axles while the cutting 
machine is in operation. It is almost impossible to feed it 
so that the cutting box is full all the time. When the 
cutting box is not full, then there is a tendency for the 
knives to pull It out and not cut it. 



186 larsen's farm dairying 

Neither did the author have good success in seeding cow- 
peas and soy beans with the corn. It was dif^cult to ob- 
tain a stand with the soy beans and cowpeas, and these 
crops grew so low that it was difficult to cut them and re- 
tain them in the bundle with the cornbinder. In a lower 
altitude and in a latitude further south these crops may 
grow well in connection with corn. 

The corn is harvested with the ordinary cornbinder. The 
bundles should be tied small, so they will pass through the 
cutter without being separated and so they can be easily 
handled. 

The corn bundles should be hauled on low trucks having 
a flat rack, to do away wnth too much lifting. 

If the cornfield is close to the silo, the following filling 
crew w^orks economically : 

4 teams and men for hauling corn fodder to the cutter. 

2 men in the field, besides the drivers, for pitching 
bundles. 

1 man to help the drivers to unload at the silage cutter. 

1 man spreading the cut silage with a distributer and 
packing the silage in the silo. 

1 man to look after the running of the gasoline engine 
and the cutter. 

1 man to feed the cutter. 

Such a crew will cut about 80 tons of silage per day, and 
it may cut as much as 100 tons. 

The engine should be of ample power, about 15 to 20 
horse power. The cutter should be of sufficient capacity 
to handle a whole bimdle at a time. It is better to under- 
feed a large cutter than it is to overfeed a small one. 

The corn should not be cut until it has grown to maturity. 
This does not mean that it should be dried up before it is 
cut. The best stage at which to cut the corn is when the 
lower part of the stalk and leaves have begun to wilt and 
turn dry. When that happens, then no more food passes 
into the cornstalk from the roots. At this stage, usually 
about a third to a half of the kernels have dented. The corn 



fp:eding the dairy herd a succulent feed 187 







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188 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



p ^1 5 a ^ p ^ 
,5" p a. 1^ 



Six blades 
June 16 



Four feet high 
July 24 



'— ON ^-►J KJ Ki ^^ 

►•- 4- OS {^ |3 ^ ^ ON 

t0i-ri0i+-4^00^l-ri 



First tassels 
appear Aug. 6 



Corn 
anJ cob 



rf-^^-Sf 



Stalk 
blade 



»r..- N>h 



Corn 
and cob 



(^ On t 

■ NO NO -^f 



Stalk 
blade 



Corn 
and cob 



. o-i H- ■ o ^>j O ► 
■ O NO 4- CO 4^ t. 



Stalk 
blade 



Corn 
and cob 



-Jt-ONO 

, rN ►— to 



►— ' to o 00 <->J oo 



Stalk 
blade 



Corn 
and cob 



Stalk 
blade 



.0»^-- ONi-nONt^ 
I CN v^i- ON On ON to 



Corn 
and cob 



100 00 On ON 



Stalk 
blade 



Corn 
and cob 



. NO t<^ N> <^ t^ I 



Stalk 
blade 



Silks 
drying 
Aug. 28 



Silks 
brown 
Sept. ir 



Glazing 
stage 
Sept. 24 



Ensilage 
stage 
Oct. 1 



Ready to 
shock 
Oct. 8 



Shock corn 
ready for 
husking 
Nov. 12 



Left standing 
in field to 
husk Nov. 12 



should have enough of 
the natural water in it 
to pack and ferment 
without the addition of 
extraneous water. It 
must not be cut so 
green that the silage 
will not hold its own 
juice. From the above- 
mentioned data one can 
easily calculate the cost 
of filling the silo. 

The accompanying 
table of analyses, taken 
from Bulletin 175 of 
the Indiana station, will 
show the development 
of the corn plant from 
the time it comes up 
until maturity. 

A machine has now 
been manufactured 
which husks and sepa- 
rates the corn ears, and 
cuts only the fodder for 
silage. 

Many silos are now 
refilled late in the fall 
with dry corn fodder or 
corn fodder cured in 
the shock in the field. 
When such dry corn 
fodder is put into the 
silo, considerable water 
must be added. The 
amount of water needed 
is about equal to the 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 



189 



amount of corn fodder cut. For each ton of corn fodder, 
use about 250 gallons of water. When frost does not inter- 
fere, the best way of adding the water is to let a continuous 
stream run into the space where the fan operates. This dis- 
tributes the water evenly. Pack the silage thoroughly in 
the silo. 

Sealing the silo. — One or two days after the silo has 
been filled, the contents will have settled considerably. The 
finer the silage has been cut, and the more carefully it has 

been distributed and packed^ 
the less settling there will be. 
If possible, the filling ma- 
chinery should be left in 
place or brought back so 
that the silo can be refilled. 
During the first week 
after filling, someone should 
make it a point to go into the 
silo every day and thor- 
oughly tramp the silage 
down, otherwise the silage 
in the lower part of the silo 
will settle and leave the top 
part open or porous. This 
admits air into the surface 
silage and causes it to spoil. 
It is a good plan to wet the 
surface of the silage every 

FIG. 67-Fillmg a 300-ton silo. ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ tramping is 

done. This will help to pack the top of the silage and 
exclude air from it. 

Some prefer to seal the silo by running a load of straw 
through the cutter the last thing. This cut straw is dis- 
tributed over the surface, moistened, and tramped down 
thoroughly. 

When a silo is opened, the spoiled silage should be hauled 




190 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



to some place where the cattle cannot obtain access to it. 
Moldy and spoiled silage is likely to poison the cows. 

Silage fermentation. — During the first 10 or 12 days 
fermentative and chemical changes take place. When the 
oxygen contained in the cut corn fodder is used, the de- 
composition or changes practically stop. When silage h 
first put into the silo there is a development of carbonic acid 
gas. This gas is heavier than air. In concentrated form it 
is poisonous. A partially filled and closed up silo may con- 
tain enough of this gas to be dangerous. A partially filled 
pit silo is more dangerous in this respect. 

The temperature of the silage is slightly increased during 
the first few days. The rise in temperature, however, is not 
so great as is generally supposed. In the top portion, which 
is exposed to air, the rise in temperature is great. The 
highest temperature recorded in this part of the silage is 
135 degrees F. 

During the winters of 1912 and 1913, the author and 
D. H. Bailey, dairy chemist, made temperature observations 
in the different parts of the silage. Maximum and mini- 
mum thermometers were placed in the silage directly in the 
center and 2 feet from the edge. Vertically, these self- 
recording thermometers wxre placed 3 feet from the top, 
in the middle of the silage, and 3 feet from the bottom. In 
addition, two self-recording thermometers were put in the 





3 ft. from top 


Center (Vertically) 


3 ft. from bottom 


Silo 




2 ft. from 




2 ft. from 




2 ft. from 




Center 


edge 


Center 


edge 


Center 


edge 




Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Ce- 
ment 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


100.5 


62.0 


106.5 


61.5 


77.7 


37.7 


77.2 


36.0 


79.0 


32.5 


86.5 


30.0 


Tile 


106.0 


47.0 


125.* 


30.0 


84.5 


53.5 


83.0 


72.5 


84.0 


38.0 


83.0 


43.0 


Wood 


No o jservations made 


















Staves 


(Fed out early) 


94.0 


50.0 


94.2 


58.0 


69.0 


40.0 


72.0 


36.0 


Aver- 


























/^n 


























of all 


























silos 


103.3 


54.5 


115.7 


45.7 


85.4 


47.1 


84.8 


55.5 


77.1 


55.5 


80.5 


35.3 



* Silage partially spoiled due to air pocket. 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 191 

silage at different places — one near the top in the silage that 
spoils, and one deeper in the silo where the silage does not 
spoil. These self-recording thermometers were placed in 
boxes in the silage at the time the silos were filled. This 
was done to protect them from being broken. The self- 
recording thermometers would record for seven days with- 
out being wound. The results of these self-record'ng ther- 
mometers are not considered complete, and on account of 
rust interfering with their proper working, the results are 
not considered sufficiently accurate for publication. 

The results from the maximum and minimum self- 
recording thermometers are considered normal, and are 
published in the preceding table. 

These observations were taken in three kinds of silos : 
Monolithic, wood stave, and double hollow tile block. The 
above data represents the average of all silos. 

The by-products formed during these changes of the 
silage are chiefly lactic acid, acetic acid, and alcohol. The 
amount of alcohol in the silage varies between one-tenth 
percent and four-tenths percent of the weight of the silage. 
This is equivalent to about five-tenths percent of the silage 
juice. 

This formation of alcohol comes about in connection with 
the production of acid from the sugar. The sugar is first 
broken up into simpler sugars, such as glucose. These are 
,then changed into acids, alcohol, and gas. The amount of 
sugar in the plant may be increased or may be formed from 
starch to some extent, but most of the sugar is contained in 
the plant at the time it is put into the silo. This amount is 
greatest when the plant is green. The further the plant 
develops into maturity, the less sugar there is in it. On this 
account, corn silage cut late does not become so sour. 

The alcohol formed is mostly changed into acetic acid 
after the silage has been kept a while. 

In addition, a variety of aromatic substances is formed. 
These various juices in the silage come about chiefly during 



192 



larsen's farm dairying 



the first four or five days. At the end of 10 or 12 days, the 
changes are practically complete. 

Enzymes, bacteria, and yeasts are the joint causal agents 
responsible for the changes occurring in silage. Bacteria 
are the chief agents in the formation of lactic acid from 
sugar. The small amount of alcohol found in silage results 
in part from the action of yeasts and also to the enzymes 
present in the plant. 

Feeding the silage. — Silage is pre-eminently a feed for 
dairy cows and young cattle. It may be fed in the barn, in 

mangers, in sheds, 
and in troughs in 
the open. Silage is 
easily handled. The 
customary way of 
feeding is to load it 
into a cart which 
can be wheeled in 
the feeding alley in 
front of the cows. 
The average cow 
will eat about from 
30 to 45 pounds of 
silage per day. This 
means about half a 
ton for each mature 
cow per month. 
This is a fair calculation on which to base the size of silo 
and area of corn needed for silage. 

During the last 10 years the South Dakota state college 
dairy herd, under the supervision of the author, has been 
fed silage constantly. The cows in milk receive their silage 
in the barn during the whole year. During the summer the 
dry cows and young stock are fed their silage in a manger 
running the full length of a shed directly in front of the 
silos. The rack in the exercise yard always contains plenty 
of good hay. The South Dakota state college dairy farm 




FIG. f8 — This silo was built in 1894 to preserve 
feed for a herd of Red Poll cattle. This was 
probably the driest year ever seen in the west. 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 193 

now produces no other feeds than corn for silage and alfalfa 
for hay. About one acre of mangel-wurzel roots is raised 
each year. These are fed chiefly to test cows. 

The author once practiced feeding silage to all animals in 
the dairy herd, but he has now discontinued feeding it to 
service bulls and young calves. Experience has taught that 
bulls fed heavily on silage become sluggish and slow breed- 
ers. Calves should appear smooth, bright, and have glossy 
hair. Such a condition does not result from feeding young 
calves silage. After they are past six months of age silage 
seems to affect them favorably if fed in moderate amount, 
and if they receive additional grain. 

In the Northwest, and during the latter part of the 
winter, considerable trouble is encountered with frozen 
silage. The common idea prevails that the kind of material 
from wdiich the silo is built and the manner of construction 
of the silo have marked effects on the amount of frosted 
silage. From experiments with practically all of the leading 
types of silos, it is safe to say that there is not much differ- 
ence in the amount of frozen silage. The silage will freeze 
some in all of the silos in this latitude. Silage freezes from 
the top as well as from the sides. During the latter part of 
the winter the silage will freeze from 6 inches to 2 feet from 
the outer edge. Silos placed to the northwest of the barn 
will have the silage frosted more than those placed on the 
south side of the barn. The silage on the north and north- 
west sides of the silo will also freeze more than will the 
silage on the protected south side. In a silo of small 
diameter the silage freezes more than in one of larger 
diameter. 

A small amount of frozen silage will not injure the cow, 
but if she is forced to eat too much of it at one time 
digestive troubles may result. Bloat quite commonly results 
from eating too much frozen silage. 

The only silo in which silage does not freeze in this lati- 
tude is the pit silo. 



194 



larsen's farm dairying 



To have the minimum amount of frozen silage, the center 
of the silage should be kept high and the outer part low. 
The surface should be convex instead of concave. Load the 
feed cart from the center every day. Then with a sharp 
spade or similar instrument proceed to take off a couple of 
inches of the frozen silage and throw it into a pile in the 
center. The lower part of this frozen silage will thaw and 
the top part will serve as a protection against additional 
freezing. Next feeding time load from the 
and then take off some more frozen silage, and so on. 




FIG. 69 — Filling a pit silo in western South Dakota. 

Some feeders avoid the frosted silage and continue to 
feed from the non-frozen portion. This results in a wall 
of frosted silage near the circumference of the silo. In the 
fore part of the winter this wall of frozen silage is thin, but 
as the winter continues the frost intensifies, the heat result- 
ing from fermentation and chemical changes has been ex- 
hausted, and this wall of frozen silage becomes much 
thicker. This method leaves a bowl-shaped hole in the 
center and much frozen silage near the outside. When 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 195 

warm weather begins, the silage thaws and pulls away from 
the silo walls. Air gets into it from all sicbs and it spoils 
so rapidly that it cannot be fed while in good condition. 

Silage should preferably be fed just after milking, in 
order to avoid saturating the barn with silage odors during 
milking time. If silage is fed before milking, the barn 
shotiM be thoroughly aired again before milking begins. 
Milk readily absorbs foreign odors present in the barn 
atmosphere. 

There was a time when it was thought that silage fed to 
cows produced silage-tainted milk, no matter how it was 




FIGS. 70 and 71 — Improner and proper way to 
keep silage on top to minimize frosted silage. 

fed. There appears to be very little foundation for this 
belief. If spoiled or partially spoiled silage is fed to milch 
cows, no doubt the milk becomes tainted. 

Kinds of silos. — There are many different forms of silos 
and so many different kinds of materials used in silo con- 



196 larsen's farm dairying 

struction that it will not be practicable in this connection to 
make an extended study of them nor of all the details of 
construction. 

Briefly it may be stated that the round silo is now con- 
sidered to be the best. The square or rectangular was used 
considerably at one time. In this latter form of silo, the 
silage in the corners usually spoils. It was also found diffi- 
cult to keep this form of silage from spreading. 

Silos are built from wood put together in different ways, 
from concrete, hollow tile blocks, brick, ordinary rock, lath 
and plaster, and metal. Any material which will keep air- 
tight, stand the pressure, resist the action of silage acids, 
and in some measure resist the cold, is suitable. 




FIG. 72— It is inconvenient to feed com from the stack, thouprh it gives 
better results than to turn the cows into the field of cornstalks. 

Silos of the different construction materials, eight leading 
types, have been built at the South Dakota station (mono- 
lithic, double hollow tile block, vitrified tile block, concrete 
anchor block, concrete stave, concrete interlocking, solid 
blocks, wood stave, and wood silos made from studdings 
boarded up horizontally inside and outside) with a view of 
ascertaining comparative efficiency and cost. From a stand- 
point of keeping silage, no difference could be observed in 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 



197 



the different kinds of silos. The silage has kept well in all 
of them. Although some of these silos have been in us 3 
only three winters, and some as long as ten successive 
winters, from numerous observations it is clear that a 
pfreat deal of latitude can be exercised in the selection of 
silo construction material. The manner and thoroughness 
cf construction and quality of construction material are 
two factors of greater importance than is the kind of 
material. 

Conditions such as the price of lumber, proximity to a 
brick or tile factory, nearness to suitable gravel, price of 




FIG. 7:; Ihc benefits of silos and silage told to the people of South Dakota 
from a special train. 

cement, suitable help and permanency desired in silo, all 
have a bearing in deciding what kind of construction 
material to use. 

In case a permanent silo is desired, the monolithic type is 
probably the cheapest, if cement can be bought at a reason- 
able price, if one has access to good gravel and if proper 
reinforcement is used. If one is located not too far from a 
tile and brick yard, so that the freight is not too high, such 
a silo of these materials is verv useful. 



198 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



If a renter desires to build a silo, and wishes to take it 
with him when his lease expires, then probably a wooden 
silo is best. The latter kind must be anchored to a good 
concrete foundation and be stayed by means of guy wires 
at the top to make it safe during dry and windy weather. 
Wooden silos do not hold their shape so well and do not 
last so long as do the permanent types of silos. 







Table Showing Capacity of Round Silos in 


Tons 


















Inside 


Diameter of Silo. 










Inside 
























height of 


























silo 


8ft. 


10 ft. 


11 ft. 


12 ft. 


13 ft. 


14 ft. 


15 ft. 


16 ft. 


17 ft. 


18 ft. 


19 ft. 


20 ft. 


20 ft 


17 
18 
19 
20 
22 


26 
28 
30 
32 
34 


30 
33 
36 
39 
41 


38 
41 
43 
46 
49 


44 

47 
50 

54 
57 


SI 

55 
59 
63 


59 
63 
67 
72 


67 
72 

n 

81 
86 










21 " 










22 " 


86 
92 
98 








23 " 


103 
110 






24 " 


122 




25 " 


23 


36 


43 


52 


60 


71 


80 


91 


104 


116 


129 


143 


26 " 


24 


38 


46 


55 


64 


75 


85 


97 


110 


123 


137 


152 


27 " 


?,5 


40 


49 


58 


68 


79 


90 


102 


116 


130 


145 


160 


28 " 


2,7 


42 


51 


61 


71 


83 


95 


109 


122 


137 


152 


169 


29 " 


28 


44 


54 


64 


75 


87 


100 


114 


128 


144 


160 


178 


30 " 


30 


47 


56 


67 


79 


91 


105 


119 


135 


151 


168 


187 


31 " 


31 


49 


59 


70 


83 


96 


110 


125 


141 


158 


176 


196 


32 " 


33 


51 


62 


74 


86 


100 


115 


131 


148 


166 


184 


205 


33 " 


35 


53 


65 


77 


90 


105 


121 


137 


155 


174 


192 


215 


34 " 


36 


56 


68 


80 


94 


109 


126 


143 


162 


181 


200 


224 


35 " 


37 


58 


70 


84 


98 


114 


132 


149 


169 


189 


209 


234 


36 " 


39 


61 


73 


87 


102 


118 


136 


155 


176 


196 


218 


243 


37 " 


40 


63 


76 


90 


106 


123 


142 


161 


183 


204 


227 


252 


38 " 


41 


66 


79 


94 


110 


128 


148 


167 


190 


212 


2.36 


262 


39 " 


43 


68 


82 


97 


115 


133 


154 


173 


197 


220 


245 


272 


40 " 


45 


70 


85 


101 


119 


138 


160 


180 


204 


228 


255 


282 


41 " 




72 


88 


105 


124 


143 


166 


187 


211 


236 


262 


291 


42 " 




74 


91 


109 


128 


148 


172 


193 


218 


244 


270 


300 


43 " 








113 
117 


133 
137 


154 

159 
165 
170 


179 
184 
191 
197 


201 
207 
215 
222 
229 
236 


225 
233 
240 
247 
254 
261 


252 
261 
269 
277 
285 
293 
301 
310 


280 
289 
298 
307 
316 
325 
334 
344 


310 


44 " 








320 


45 " 








330 


46 " 












340 


47 " 












350 


48 " 
















361 


49 " 
















371 


50 " 




















382 



The type of silo that has come into general and success- 
ful use in the semi-arid sections, and on high locations, is 
the pit silo. In areas where the ground water line is high, 
and where seepage water is likely to interfere, the pit silo 
is not practicable. 

Among the advantages of the pit silo, the first is cheap- 
ness. It can be made with home labor. Aside from the 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 199 

labor involved, there is a required cash outlay of only about 
forty dollars. Secondly, the pit silo prevents frozen silage 
entirely. Thirdly, it does not dry out or blow down when 
empty. 

Among the disadvantages of this type, the first is that 
considerable labor is involved in getting the silage out. This 
is not of sufficient weight to be considered a drawback. The 
first 12 feet of silage can be thrown out by the use of a 
pitchfork. The remainder has to be hoisted out. For a 
small herd the silage may be carried out in baskets ; for a 
large herd a hoisting device should be used. This latter may 
consist of a block and tackle, with the rope fastened to the 
top part of the silo cover directly above the center of the 
silo. A box of suitable size is fastened to the hook of the 
tackle. The hoisting may be done by hand or by a windlass 
fastened to the side of the covering, or by the use of a horse. 
Second, carbonic acid gas is likely to accumulate in a pit 
silo and thus render it dangerous. The time when a pit 
silo is dangerous is when it is being filled and is partly full. 
At this time precautions should be exercised. The air in 
the partly filled silo should be stirred up before anyone 
enters it. A candle may be lowered to test whether there 
is enough oxygen left to burn. If the silo has been filled 
and the silage is romoved daily, there is very little danger in 
connection with an excess of carbonic acid gas. 

Water for the Dairy Cow 

The dairy cow needs a larger amount of water than 
probably any other domestic animal. The amount she 
drinks daily will vary according to the size, according to the 
milk she gives, according to the temperature and humidity 
of surroundings, according to the amount of exercise, 
according to the degree of dryness of the feed consumed, 
and according to the amount of protein consumed in relation 
to other nutrients. 

The chief functions of water in a dairy cow's ration may 
be said to be as follows : 



200 larsen's farm dairying 

1. Water dissolves nutrients. No foods can be utilized 
by the system of the cow until they have been brought into 
complete solution. In accomplishing this, water plays an 
important part. The more food consumed, the more w^ater 
a cow requires. 

2. Water is a medium for distributing the food to ths 
different parts of the body. Water may serve both as a 
direct and as an indirect transferring agency. For instance, 
when food is masticated, saliva is mixed with it. Saliva 
contains about 90 percent of water. Again, water when 
mixed with food in the digestive tract serves as a direct 
medium for transferring food. 

3. Water is used as a vehicle for transferring waste and 
poisonous products from the system. This process of 
elimination is carried on through the skin, through the kid- 
neys, through the digestive tract, and through the respira- 
tory organs. In all of these instances, water plays an im- 
portant part. In an animal such as the dairy cow% that 
consumes a relatively large amount of protein, water is of 
special importance. Urea is one of the soluble poisonous 
products resulting from a heavy protein ration. With the 
aid of water and proper circulation, the kidneys are able 
to rid the system of this particular substance. 

During the winter, under average barn conditions, about 
12 percent of the total water drunk by the cow is eliminated 
through the skin. During the summer about 27 percent of 
the water drunk is eliminated through the skin. About 13 
percent of the water drunk in the winter passes through the 
kidneys in the form of urine. A little more than half, or 
about 56 percent of the water drunk, is eliminated in the 
feces. All of the excretory agencies need a constant water 
supply to perform their work of eliminating waste and 
poisonous matter from the body.* 

4. A dairy cow uses water for the manufacture jf milk. 
This latter product contains about 87 percent of water. In 

* Bulletin No. 175, "The Role of Water in a Dairy Cow's Ration," 
South Dakota station. 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 201 

the experiments conducted at the South Dakota station, the 
average cows in the experiment used about 15 percent of 
the water drunk for milk purposes. This percentage and 
distribution of water in the system of the cow vary accord- 
ing to the amount of milk given. 

The portion of the water drunk by the cow eliminated 
through the urine, through the skin, and used for milk 
production, evidently must first enter into the circulation of 
the cow. The water in the feces probably never serves the 
system of the cow except as a food solvent, as a transfer- 
ring medium, and for regulating the consistency of th^ 




FIG. 74 — A stream of pure i-unning water is a preat asset to a herd of dairy 
cows in pasture. 

contents of the digestive tract. This does not refer to the 
water that may enter the digestive tract in connection with 
secretory or excretory products. 

The sources of the water for a cow are as follows : 1. The 
water that she drinks, which constitutes the largest per- 
centage. 2. The water that is present in all foods, even the 
dry hay and grain containing at least 10 percent of water, 
and the succulent feeds much more. 3. The water that 
results from metabolism within the cow. According to 
investigations by Dr. Babcock of the Wisconsin station, 
metabolic water results to the extent of 55.5 percent of the 
cellulose or starch, 60 percent of the dextrose, a little less 



202 larsen's farm dairying 

than 100 percent of the fat, and 60 to 65 percent of the 
protein digested. In accordance with this, the average cow- 
is suppHed with about one gallon of metabolic water daily. 
Cows in an experiment at the South Dakota station drank 
about 75 pounds of water daily, obtained about 19.2 pounds 
from the feed consumed — 17.5 from silage and 0.7 pound 
from the grain, one pound from the hay — and about eight 
pounds of metabolic water. The total water then used 
daily on an average by each of these cows was 102 pounds. 
The cows in the experiment were just common cows, pro- 
ducing about two gallons of milk daily. 




FIG. 75 — In the semi-arid sections dams are constructed to hold water for the 

dairy herd. 

5. Water regulates the body temperature. That there is 
evaporation from the body, as well as from breathing, is 
evident from what has already been said. During hot 
weather the evaporation of water from the body is about 
twice as great as in cold weather. The rate of respiration 
is undoubtedly also greater during the summer. The 
greater the evaporation of moisture from the body, the 
greater the amount of heat removed from the body. 

Considering, then, the important functions of water, it Is 
clear that a dairy cow should be supplied with plenty of 
fresh, pure water at all times, or be watered at least twice 
per day. 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 203 

According to recent investigations, it appears that the 
water should not be given immediately before or imme- 
diately after the cow has eaten a heavy feed. An excess of 
water at these times may interfere with the proper diges- 
tion, especially of the crude fiber. Stale and putrid water 
should not be allowed the dairy cow. Water of this quality 
is not at all uncommon in some pastures during the latter 
part of the summer. When such water is drunk, the milk 
becomes tainted; besides, cows standing around in such 
water are likely to get their udders soiled. Through this 
medium the milk is likely to become infected with abnormal 
and harmful bacteria. Milk from such cows is also likely to 
contain filth. 

The question has often been raised, **Can disease-produc- 
ing germs be transmitted to the milk from the water the 
cow drinks?" It is generally admitted that germs cannot 
pass from the digestive tract through the absorption system 
and through the circulation to the mammary gland of a 
healthy cow. On the other hand, disease-producing germs 
in a cow's drinking water may infect the milk by direct 
means. They may get into the milk from the outside of the 
cow's udder, or from utensils that have been rinsed in this 
impure water. 

For some time it was generally believed that alkali water 
drunk by dairy cows produced what was known as "alkali 
disease." Experiments have conclusively shown that this 
disease cannot be produced by feeding strong alkali water. 
In addition, it was found that cows may become accustomed 
to the use of alkali water which ordinarily is considered too 
strong to drink.* 

The drinking water for a dairy cow has often been neg- 
lected. Some cows are forced to drink ice-cold water. 
Many milch cows have been turned out on very cold days 
and forced to sip the ice-cold water from between particles 
of ice. Ice-cold water in the stomach, and a temperature 
of perhaps 20 to 30 degrees below zero surrounding their 

* South Dakota station Bulletins No. 132 and 147. 



204 larsen's farm dairying 

bodies, certainly impose a great tax on a dairy cow. Much 
heat is necessary to warm this water, and to maintain 
normal body temperature amid such surroundings. The 
source of this heat is in the feed. 

1 pound of corn contains about 1300 calories of heat. 

1 calorie equals the heat necessary to raise 1 kilogram of 
water 1° C. or 1 pound of water 4° F. 

1300 calories, therefore, will heat 1300 pounds of water 
4°F. 

1300 calories will raise 5200 pounds of water 1° F, 
(1300 X 4). _ 

1300 calories, or 1 pound of corn, will heat 74 pounds of 
water from 32° F. to 102° F., or 70° (5200 -f- 4). 

The feeds digested by the cow cannot be entirely oxidized 
in the digestive tract of the cow. Therefore more than one 
pound of corn would be required to heat the water drunk- 
daily by a cow from freezing point to body temperature. 

According to King of the Wisconsin station, the heat in 
one pound of beef fat is required every 3.8 days to warm 
the drinking water to body temperature ; if the water 
is warmed to 70 degrees, the heat in one pound of beef fat 
will heat the water 7.4 days to body temperature, or practi- 
cally twice as long a time. 

It is wrong to use dairy cows for stoves to heat drinking 
water and cold air, and to use expensive feeds for fuel. 
The water for the dairy cow should at least not be ice-cold. 
The temperature should be raised to about 60 degrees. A 
tank heater is desirable for this purpose, of which there are 
many forms. If a small boiler is used in the dairy, a steam 
pipe extended to the water tank is an easy way of taking the 
chill out of the water. 

Neither should a herd of good dairy cows be compelled 
to go out on cold and frosty days to be watered. Arrange- 
ments should be made to water cows inside. Some use the 
individual trough in front of each stanchion. By this sys- 
tem, the cows have water before them constantly. In many 
barns, however, the water in the troughs and pipes would 



FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 



205 



freeze. Furthermore, dust and particles of feed are likely 

to settle into these individual drinking fountains, and in 

addition they are an extra expense. 

A continuous concrete manger having a drain at one end 

has proven to be a successful method of supplying water for 

the herd. Some have 
objected to this system 
on the ground that it 
was not sanitary, on 
account of the water 
running from one cow 
to the other. Yet this 
is the system the au- 
thor has used during 
the winters for many 
years, and he can find 
no valid fault with it. 
Some dairy farmers 
have constructed a 
water tank inside of 
the barn and the cows 
are let loose, a couple 
at the time, twice a 
day, to be watered. 

For supplying water 
in the pasture during 
the summer good run- 
ning water is the best. 

Cows should not be compelled to walk too far for the water 

in hot weather. A self-adjusting running windmill and a 

good well in the pasture will also take care of the water 

supply for the herd. 

Cows should never be permitted to crowd each other 

around the water tank. This is not an uncommon cause of 

abortion in cows. 



i 


1^ 


''*''' ^i- ^^^1 


H^ 


^^ 


^^ 


i^jf ' '-;lj^l^^^ 


i^^m^^^KLtSttd 


^^i 


^HH^ 


j^L. "Vv*' 


1 g- ^Y^r^ |-^ •■'' 


■■WHiSf l^''^!2 





FIG. 76 — A water system on the dairy farm 

supplier water conveniently to the dairy 

herd. It also affords fire protection. 



CHAPTER X 
AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 

The average dairy cow should have all she can eat of one 
of the rough feeds. The amount of concentrates should be 
regulated. The nutrients in the form of rough feeds are 
less expensive than are the nutrients in the concentrates. 

The amount of a given feed that a cow will eat is, of 
course, limited. It is limited first by the capacity of the 
cow, which varies with different individuals ; and secondly, 
by the palatability of the different feeds. There can be no 
question but that there is a relation between palatability and 
digestibility of foods. 

A dairy cow from which economic production is desired 
should always have feeds that are in good condition. Feeds 
that have been damaged during harvesting by rain, by too 
much sun exposure, or by being allowed to overripen, or 
that have become musty in storage, or that have been picked 
over by rodents, are not suitable for a dairy cow. 

Amount of roughage. — From the standpoint of profit- 
able milk production, a dairy cow should receive as much 
rough feed as she can handle. The nutrients in the form of 
alfalfa hay and silage are under most conditions much the 
cheapest. This is especially true in the central Northwest. 

Some cows have a greater capacity for utilizing nutrients 
in this form, while others can handle nutrients best in the 
form of concentrates. Some rough feed or bulk is impor- 
tant for all dairy cows and all ruminants. The amount of 
dry matter that there should be in a dairy cow's ration usu- 
ally varies between 20 to 30 pounds, 25 pounds being about 
the average. 

When a cow is not giving more than about two gallons of 
milk daily, and if she is a capacious cow, she can consume 

206 



AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 



207 



all of the required nutrients in the form of silage and 
alfalfa or clover hay. 

From the standpoint of maximum production, without 
considering the cost of the ration, the individual cow must 
be studied more closely. A large producing cow, expected 
to make a maximum record, should have most of the nutri- 
ents in the form of concentrates. Some large producing 
cows, if fed large quantities of silage and hay, will not be 
able to consume and digest enough nutrients. Some cows 
will do better if the concentrates are increased and the 
amount of rough feeds is limited. 

The dairy farmer should make it a point to raise his own 
rough feeds, and especially to raise alfalfa and clover hay 
to supply the protein. The following statements, based on 
yields on the South Dakota state college dairy farm, are 
intended to show the comparative amount of digestive 
nutrients that can be raised on an acre of land from some 
of the dififerent crops. 

TABLE SHOWING COMPARATIVE YIELD OF COMMON FEED CROPS. 



Crop 


Yield per acre 


Percent dige,stible 
nutrients 


Pounds of digestible 

nutrients on one 

acre 


Corn silage 

Alfalfa hay 

Oats 


12.0 tons 

3.8 " 
60.0 bu. 
42.0 " 


.17 
.51 
.70 
.79 


4012 
3876 
1344 


Barley 


1592 



Cows fed relatively heavily on rough feeds seem to last 
longer. Their organs of digestion are not easily impaired. 
Cows that have been crowded for any length of time with 
grain, especially when feeding a narrow ration or a ration 
rich in protein, are likely to be useful for only a limited 
time. The continued heavy feeding of a protein ration seems 
to injure the procreative organs, and they are likely to 
become non-breeders. 

This barrenness in heavily fed cows has been due in some 
instances to not mating them until after they are eight and 
even 10 months along in the lactation period. This latter is 
done to obtain maximum production in yearly and longer 
tests. 



208 larsen's farm dairying 

If a heavy grain ration is fed to a cow for any length of 
time, special efforts should be made not to have it too com- 
pact. Ground corn alone is considered a very compact feed. 
Feeds that have the consistency of flour, such as cottonseed 
meal, are also difficult to digest. Ground oats and barley 
are of medium compactness, and a mixture of bran and 
ground oats constitutes a Hght and fluffy grain ration. A 
certain amount of bulk is important in both grain and 
roughage. 

Amount of concentrates. — It is especially in connection 
with feeding grain that both skill and economy need be 
exercised. 

Some cows are well balanced and their ability to handle 
feed corresponds with their natural ability to transform it 
into milk. 

Other cows have greater ability to consume and handle 
feeds, but very little ability to convert them into milk. 

Still other cows again have dainty appetites and little 
ability to consume feeds, but have an unusual ability for 
converting whatever feeds they do consume into dairy 
products. 

The cows belonging to the first-mentioned class are rela- 
tively easy to feed. Those of the second class may easily 
be fed grain without obtaining proper returns. The cows of 
the third class usually make good returns, but considerable 
skill is required in making up a ration to get them to eat as 
much as they can convert into milk. Such a cow usually 
does not put on nuich flesh. 

The balanced cow, or the one belonging to the first-men- 
tioned class, is the kind that every dairy farmer likes to 
develop and likes to feed. The feeder should watch the 
milk produced in relation to the amount of grain fed. The 
grain ration should be gradually increased. vSo long as the 
increase in milk production is sufficient to pay for the in- 
creased amount of grain, the dairy farmer is safe in con- 
tinuing to increase the cow's grain ration, 



AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 209 

The limit of the cow's abiHty to convert this feed into 
milk will soon be reached. When this occurs, it is impor- 
tant that the grain ration be no longer increased. If it is, 
then the cow may put it on herself in increased weight, or 
she may not make use of it at all, or it may injure the cow's 
health, and make her stale. If this happens, then she loses 
her appetite. She has been overfed. 
I'l The point where a cow will no longer return sufficient 
' milk to pay for the increased feed is usually reached when 
she is getting one pound of grain for each three or four 
pounds of milk produced, or when she is fed as many 
pounds of grain daily as she produces pounds of butter fat 
per week. 

With the average dairy herd, there is greater danger of 
loss from underfeeding than there is from overfeeding. 
This point may be illustrated in this manner. Suppose that 
a cow is on full feed. Forty percent of this feed is used for 
body maintenance and 60 percent for milk. This cow is at 
her maximum. Now again, suppose that this ration is re- 
duced by 10 percent. This decrease of feed wnll make itself 
felt chiefly in less milk, but also in a reduction of body 
weight. The instinct for milk production in a cow is so 
strong that for a time she will draw from her own body for 
milk production. If this decreased ration continues, the 
cow will soon reach a point where there is no more body 
surplus from w^hich to draw. Then the amount of milk 
yielded will be decreased about 10 percent, or the same 
percentage by which the feed was reduced. 

The amount of grain each cow receives should be definitely 
known. This grain may be w^eighed separately, or a mix- 
ture of grain may be made and then weighed and measured 
out for each cow. When a number of different grains are 
fed and there is a large herd, the former method is too slow. 
A basic mixture of grain can be fed to all of the cows. The 
few large producing cows needing an increased amount of 
special grains may then easily be fed them in addition. A 
good basic mixture to feed the average dairy herd receiving 



210 larsen's farm dairying 

corn silage and alfalfa hay or clover hay as rough feed, is as 
follows : 

Ground corn 25 percent 

Ground oats 55 " 

Wheat bran 20 " 

For large producing cows add about two to four pounds 
of linseed meal per day. 

For cows receiving corn silage and prairie hay, or broom 
grass hay, or timothy hay for roughage, the following basic 
grain ration is suitable : 

Ground oats 45 percent 

Ground barley or spelt 20 " 

Wheat bran 20 

Linseed meal 15 " 

The feeder must mix his grain ration to suit the cow and 
the conditions, always keeping in mind these points : 1. Suffi- 
cient nutrients of the right kind. 2. Proper bulk and con- 
sistency. 3. Variety. 4. Physical effects of the ration. 
5. Cost of nutrients in the different feeds. 6. Palatability. 

Grinding grain. — The grain when fed should be in the 
best possible condition to be masticated and digested by the 
cow. The teeth and the stomach are usually the first 
organs to be worn out by a dairy cow. This is especially 
true of a cow's teeth. Grinding the grain for a da'ry cow 
saves the teeth and the stomach. With a steer that is to be 
marketed when about three years of age, this consideration 
does not apply so much ; neither does it apply to a young 
calf that changes his teeth. 

Much energy is required for grinding the feed. This is 
true whether it is done by the cow or by a grinding machine. 
The latter is by far the cheapest and also most efficient 
apparatus for grinding grain. The extra amount of energy 
required for masticating unground grain should be turned 
into milk or into useful body purposes. 

In addition, much waste results from feeding a dairy cow 
whole grain. As much as 24 percent of the whole grain fed 
to a cow may pass through the digestive tract unmasticated 



AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 211 

and undigested. In connection with cattle feeding, hogs 
pick up this waste, but hogs should not be allowed to follow 
up a herd of dairy cows. Calves have great ability to 
masticate and digest whole grain. The author has never 
observed whole grain pass through the digestive tract of 
calves. 

Occasionally the corn in the silage will pass through the 
digestive tract of a cow without being masticated or 
digested. This is one reason why the corn shouM not be 
allowed to overripen or become hard before the silage corn 
is harvested. This passing of whole grain through a cow is 
also more frequent when there is a large proportion of 
kernels to stalk in the silage. 

Variety. — It is possible to obtain a balanced ration for 
a cow from alfalfa hay and corn. This would be a simple 
ration to feed, but it lacks variety. Several different kinds 
of grain blend together better in the process of digestion. 
Cows like a variety better than a ration composed of a single 
kind of grain, and attractiveness of a ration for a cow is 
important. 

It is also possible that some grains may contain substances 
which, when mixed with substances in other feeds, are 
desirable. It has been amply proven that the ordinary com- 
position of grain (protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals) 
does not tell the whole story in connection with the constitu- 
ents of feeds. It has already been shown that there are 
several kinds of proteins and that the crude protein in a 
certain feed is made up of several nitrogenous bodies. 
Likewise the ether extract, carbohydrates, and fats in the 
different feeds may differ greatly. Decomposition and 
synthetic changes in the digestive tract may proceed more 
favorably when a variety of feeds is given. 

Order of feeding. — In European dairy countries the 
order and time of winter feeding are regular. For instance, 
in Denmark the feeding starts early in the morning, or when 
the milking begins. Usually the cows are first fed rye 
straw, then barley straw, and then oats straw. In the rota- 



212 larsen's farm dairying 

tion of crops, clover is usually seeded with oats. This 
makes the oats straw contain considerable clover, a com- 
bination liked by the cows. When these straws have been 
eaten, the mangers are cleaned and the excess straw, if any, 
is used for bedding. Then the cows are fed some of the 
chaff from the threshing of the different crops. The grain 
is weighed out for each cow and usually put on the top of 
the chaff. When this is eaten, the mangers are thoroughly 
cleaned and the cows are watered (usually from the 
mangers). The excess of water is drained away. At this 
point the roots are usually fed. The cows are then fed 
hay. While the cows are eating hay they are usually cur- 
ried. Then the various alleys are swept and the bedding 
tmder each cow is adjusted. All of this is usually completed 
by about 10 o'clock in the forenoon. 

The cows are then allowed to rest until about two o'clock 
in the afternoon. Where the milking is done three times a 
day, the cows are disturbed long enough to be milked at 
noon. 

Beginning about two o'clock in the afternoon, this same 
order of feeding is again started, except that the rye straw is 
omitted as the first feed, and usually is given the last thing 
in the evening after milking, which is about eight o'clock 
at night. 

This system cannot well be followed under conditions in 
the United States. Labor is more expensive and feeding 
must be done in the simplest way possible. It is, neverthe- 
less, important that winter feeding of a herd of dairy cows 
be carried out with regularity. The method followed must 
be governed by local conditions and cannot be prescribed. 

The method followed by the author Is as follows : Begin- 
ning in the morning, push the excess hay left in the feeding 
alley up close to the cows. This can be done without st'r- 
ring up any dust. The milking is then done while the cows 
are munching on this hay. Then the cows are fed their 
silage and the grain on top of it. The cows are rest'ng and 



AMOUNT TO FEED THE DATRV HERD 213 

digesting this feed while the men obtain their breakfast. 
Then the mangers are swept and the cows are watered. A 
liberal amount of hay is then fed. 

In cold and stormy weather the cows are kept in the barn 
all day. In reasonably favorable weather the cows are let 
out in a yard sheltered by means of a shed opening to ih^ 
south, having a manger in front. This manger always has 
plenty of hay in it. In addition, a large hayrack in the yard 
is kept filled with hay. 

While the cows are out during the middle of the day, the 
silage and the grain on top of it are put into the manger. 
The cows are let in about three o'clock in the afternoon. 
When the cows are in place, the alleys are swept and doors 
and windows opened to eliminate silage odors and dust that 
may be in the barn. The milking in the afternoon begins 
about 4.30 o'clock. Nothing is fed during th^ milking 
period or just previous. Just after milking, the cows are 
given plenty of hay for the night. In case the cows are not 
let out in the yard during the day, they are watered the 
second time just before they are fed silage and grain. 

Some herdsmen having cows on large production tests 
make it a habit to feed the cows each time they are being 
milked. AA^hen cows get into this habit, they naturally ex- 
pect their feed when the milking is done. It is, however, not 
necessary and probably not important thus to feed a cow 
when she is being milked. This is probably done largely for 
convenience. Such a cow is usually milked four times a day 
and these milking periods naturally constitute convenient 
times for feeding. The point to be emphasized is to prac- 
tice regularity of feeding and to feed the feeds about in the 
same order daily. A cow should not be fed grain early in 
the morning one day and late the next day. 

Cost of Ration 

There are some qualities of feeds on which a money value 



214 larsen's farm dairying 

cannot well be set. For Instance, the author has practiced 
feeding some linseed meal daily to all large producing cows, 
no matter what the cost has been. This was done on account 
of favorable physical effects of this feed. 

The condition of the feed and the palatability of it are 
other factors on which no definite money value can be given. 
Nevertheless, they are factors of importance and factors 
that influence the value of a particular feed. 

The comparative value of the different feeds in respect 
to the amount of digestible nutrients, or in respect to the 
amount of protein and net energy may be calculated. 

Example: A dairy farmer feeds alfalfa hay and silage 
for roughages, and for concentrates he has on hand plenty 
of corn, barley, and oats — in fact, so much on hand that it 
is necessary to sell some. Suppose that the price of corn is 
86 cents per bushel. The problem for such a dairy farmer 
will be, which of these grains should be sold and which 
should be fed to the cows? Calculated according to the 
digestible nutrients, the comparative value would be as 
follows : 

lOOpounds of corn contains: 

(31.45 per 100 pounds) 

Protein 7.5 "I 

Carbohydrates 67.8 I ^ ■• , j ei ^ r . or t i -rn 

Fat (4 6 X 2-1 in 4 f nutritive value per pound. 31-45 S-85. 7 = 1.70 cents 

Total nutrients 85.7 J 

100 pounds of barley contains: 

(31.25 per 100 pounds) 
Protein 7.5 ] 

Carbohydrates 66.8 ( .. •..• 1 j 01 ir . to ^ 1 r-r 

F t C4 6 X 2~) 3 6 I ""^''''^'ve value per pound, pi. 15 —7yA =1.57 cents 

Total nutrients 79.4 J 

100 pounds of oats contains: 
(31.25 per lOOpounds) 
Protein 9.7"] 

Fat^(?8'llir ^8 6 nutritive value per pound. 31.25-^70.4 = 1.77 cents 
Total nutrients 70.4 J 

It will be seen from the above that one pound of digestible 
nutrients in the corn is worth 1.7 cents, in the barley 1.57 
cents and in the oats 1.77 cents. From the standpoint of 
contained nutrients, this would make the barley the cheapest 
feed, the corn the second cheapest, and oats the most 
expensive. 



AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 215 

Considering that corn and oats are very nearly equal in 
value from the standpoint of nutrients contained, and con- 
sidering that oats is such a splendid feed for a dairy cow, it 
would probably be advisable to retain the oats and corn and 
dispose of the barley. There is something about oats as a 
feed that gives life and bloom to an animal which a fe?d I'ke 
corn does not possess. 

If a person had prairie hay for roughage instead of 
alfalfa hay, then it would be a question largely of purchas- 
ing protein in the cheapest form in order to balance the 
ration. The comparative value of protein in these differ- 
ent feeds may be calculated in the same manner as illus- 
trated above with the digestible nutrients. That is, the value 
per 100 poimds of feed may be divided by the percentage 
of digestible protein. The quotient would represent the 
comparative price per pound of protein of the different 
feeds. 

According to the above method, the value of 100 pounds 
of digestible nutrients in the form of hay and other rou~h 
feeds will be found to be relatively too low. A pound of 
digestible nutrients in the form of rough feed docs not con- 
tain so much net energy as does a pound of digestible 
nutrients in the form of concentrates fed in proper form. 
The cow must expend considerably more energy in masti- 
cating and digesting rough feeds than in preparing the con- 
centrates for absorption by the system. 

The comparative food value of the different feeds may 
also be calculated by using the Armsby data, for instance, 
with the same feeds and prices used above, corn at $1 45 per 
100 pounds, barley at $1.25 per 100, and oats at $1.25 per 
100. 

100 pounds of corn contains 89.16 therms 31.45 -7-89.16 = 1.62 cents per therm 
100 " " barley " 89.94 " 31.25 --89.94 = 1.39 " " 

100 " " oats " 67.56 " 31.25-67.56 = 1.85 " " 

By this method it will be seen that the same relative 
values of these feeds are obtained as when calculated on 
the basis of total digestible nutrients. 



2l6 larsen's farm dairying 

The total digestible nutrients in feeds furnish probably 
the most accurate value of different feeds. At least this 
appears correct so long as the Armsby net energy determina- 
tions of all the feeds have not been completed. 

Feeding for maximum records. — When a maximum 
production from a dairy cow is expected, no emphasis is 
laid on the cost of the ration and on the amount and cost of 
the labor. It is not a case of economic production so much 
as of maximum production. 

The things mentioned previously in connection with feed- 
ing the dairy cow need to be emphasized to a still greater 
extent. The variety of grains fed is usually greater in 
number, and greater care is used in selecting the most palat- 
able feeds. The palatability of the ration is of special im- 
portance when a cow is on heavy feed. Her appetite is not 
usually so keen. In order to find out which feeds such a 
cow likes best, the author provides a long feed box with 
several compartments in it. At first, when the cow is put 
on the heavy feed, the different grains are fed in this box 
separately. By watching the cow, one can soon learn whizh 
feeds she likes best and which feeds have little or no attrac- 
tion for her. It is usually safe to make up the ration chiefly 
from the feeds which she craves the most. 

Cows on production tests are usually fed the salt in the 
grain. Dr. Babcock's rule is to feed an ounce of salt to 
each 20 pounds of milk produced, and in addition an oun^e 
for each 1000 pounds of live weight. In addition to th's, 
the cows should have free access to salt at all times, and 
free access to pure, clean water. 

The author also practices feeding two kinds of hay. Well- 
cured alfalfa hay and wild hay both are kept before the 
cow. 

If silage Is fed, it should not be given in large quantities, 
usually not over 30 pounds per day ; but it is important that 
the cow receive a good heavy ration of some kind of roots, 
sliced for the convenience of the cow, if the silage Is con- 
siderably lessened. 



AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 217 

It will be noticed that the feed provided is to obtain the 
maximum normal production. Some cow owners do not 
feed cows on test a full ration. This is claimed to produce 
a higher percent of fat in the milk ; that is, more of the body- 
fat goes into the milk when the cow is compelled to draw 
upon her own body. However, by this system the milk 
yield is usually low. 

A cow on official test may be kept in a well-bedded box 
stall. Hot weather is a poor time in which to make a large 
official record. Spring and fall are usually the most 
suitable. 

A cow on such heavy feed should be very carefully 
watched. The caretaker should see that the bowel move- 
ment is regular and of proper consistency. 

The cow's appetite must be kept keen at all times during 
the test. If the cow should become constipated and stale, 
reduce the grain ration at once and give the cow a rectal 
injection. A mild laxative should also be given. This may 
consist of a pint of raw linseed oil or a pound of epsom 
salts, dissolved in a pint of water. Great care should be 
taken when drenches are given that they do not settle on 
the lungs. 



J. 



CHAPTER XI 

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 

Milking a cow requires good judgment, skill, and a sym- 
pathetic attitude on the part of the milker, and, above all, 
it requires a high regard for proper sanitation. In coun- 
tries where dairying is carried on intensively, the process 
of milking is emphasized. For instance, in Denmark the 
dififerent agricultural schools have given a special milking 
course, with a view of acquainting all milkers with the im- 
portance of skill, system, and the proper methods of pro- 
cedure. Prizes are offered to those who qualify as the 
best milkers. This stimulates interest and those who thus 
excel as milkers are able to command a very high salary. 

Condition of Cow 

The Structure of a Covin's Udder. — A cow's udder is 
divided into two halves longitudinally. The left and right 
halves are entirely separated by a membrane which attaches 
to the twist behind and on the lower part of the abdomen 
in front of the udder. This serves as a complete partition 
between the right and left halves, and in addition helps to 
carry and support the cow's udder. 

Each one of these halves is again partially divided into a 
front and hind quarter. 

The mammary gland is a secretory gland. Milk is 
secreted in a manner similar to the secretion of the saliva 
in the mouth and of the gastric and pancreatic juices in the 
digestive tract. The raw material is carried by the blood 
to the mammary gland. This gland manufactures these 
raw products into milk. The mammary gland is located in 
the upper part of the cow's udder. It is composed of an 
aggregation of little sack-like bodies. Each of these sack- 
like bodies has a duct leading from it. These numerous 

218 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 219 

small ducts join together and form larger ducts, which ter- 
minate in the lower part of the cow's udder in what is 
known as the milk cistern. The above-mentioned sack-like 
bodies are known as gland-lobules. Some call them ulti- 
mate follicles. On the inside of these gland-lobules are a 
number of still smaller bodies, which are known as alveoli. 
The alveoli constitute the real machinery for the manufac- 
ture of the milk. The gland in each quarter of a cow's 
udder has been likened to an inverted cluster of grapes. 
The stems leading to the grapes are likened to the milk 
ducts, the grapes or the fruits to the gland-lobules, and the 
seeds of the grapes to the alveoli. 

At each place where these ducts branch and rebranch, 
there is a muscle over which the cow has complete control. 
She can open and close them at will. It is a well-known 
fact that some cows, under excitement or because of some 
other provocation, will hold up their milk. For a schematic 
cross-sectional view of a cow's udder, see figure 81. 

Clean and Healthy Cows. — Considering that the natural 
ability of a cow to produce milk has been much increased, 
and since a high-producing cow is a specially developed 
being, one might expect more or less trouble in keeping the 
cow's udder in perfect condition at all times. If this 
secretory organ becomes abnormal in any way, it stands to 
reason that the milk will not be normal. It is the business 
of the milker to watch carefully that normal milk is at all 
times produced. In case of any unhealthy condition of the 
cow the milk should not be used. 

As has been previously stated, certain feeds, such as wild 
onion, garlic, or decayed food of any kind, will taint the 
milk. Such tainted milk is not the result of any malady of 
the cow's udder. The purity of a cow's milk is naturally 
well guarded. Nature intended to protect in every way 
possible this natural food supply. Digestive derangements, 
if prolonged, will cause milk of abnorma/ quality. Some 
cows' milk is abnormal during the oestrual period. 

The milker should be careful that the cow herself is clean 



220 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



at the time of milking. Clean milk cannot be produced 
from cows that are covered with manure on the sides and 
thighs. If a cow's udder and teats are soiled, and if her 
sides and thighs are dirty, she must be cleaned before milk- 
ing. Ordinarily, wiping the sides and udder with a damp 
cloth is sufficient. This cloth may be moistened occa- 
sionally in a disinfectant solution. In case that the cow's 
udder is very soiled, it should be washed with a cloth in 
lukewarm water and dried before milking. 

Dirt that falls from the cow into the milk causes trouble 
in two ways. First, it imparts a bad cowy flavor to the 
milk, and, secondly, there are many undesirable germs that 
accompany the dirt. These germs or bacteria multiply and 
develop in the milk and cream and produce foul smellin^^ 
gases and other undesirable by-products. 




FIG. 77 — A concrete sanitary and sheltered cow yard. 
(Universal Portland Cement Co.) 

Clean healthy cows fed on good wholesome feeds are 
requisites to sanitary milk production. 

Keep Cow's Teats in Good Condition. — Chapped teats 
are quite common. This at times comes about from fre- 
quent washing in hard cold water without properly drying 
afterwards. It may also result from the cow's wading 
about in ponds of stagnant water. Use warm soft water 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 221 

with a little disinfectant in it, for washing cow's udder and 
teats, and afterwards carefully dry them with a clean linen 
cloth. When they have been carefully dried apply a little 
vaseline or a salve which has been made up from three 
parts of lard and one part of turpentine. The latter is 
desirable for sore teats of all kinds. 

Sore teats from barb wire cuts is another common ail- 
ment. This trouble is not common on farms where woven 
wire fences are used and where cattle are not pastured 
much. Such a wound usually heals very slowly. This is 
due to the fact that every time the cow is milked, the wound 
is usually reopened. The milker should make a special 
effort to allow the healing to continue. Mechanical milk- 
ing is much easier on such a cow than is hand milking. 
When such a wound is cut, it should at once be thoroughly 
washed out with a disinfectant. Then apply a salve. One 
of the ordinary carbolic acid salves, vaseline, and the tur- 
pentine salve, described above, are all suitable. The waiter 
has seen ordinary lubricating oil and ordinary axle grease 
used with success. They keep the germs and dirt away 
and protect the open sore from coming in direct contact 
with the air. 

In some instances the cut is so deep as to cause the milk 
to flow through on the side of the teat. The raw w^ound 
may be healed, but it is difficult to get the parts to grow 
together so as to close the opening entirely while the cow 
is giving milk. If the cow does not give much milk, it is 
best to dry her up. In case that she cannot be dried up 
before the wound heals, the sore may be repaired after the 
cow dries up. This is done by recutting the skin next to 
the opening. A sterile milking tube is inserted through t!-3 
regular canal of the teat. Then put rubber bands aroun I 
the wound and teat just tight enough to hold the wound 
together. Be sure that the wound is thoroughly disinfect;! 
before the rubber bands draw it together. In a short time 
the opening will close together completely. Then the milk- 
ing tube may be taken out. Leave the rubber bands on till 



222 larsen's farm dairying 

the wound has completely grown together and there is no 
more danger of its separating. 

The most serious and most painful teat wounds resu't 
from a cow's stepping on her own teats. This happens wich 
cows having pendulous udders and long teats. It usuaFy 
happens when a cow gets up in her stall after having laid 
down. 

At times one cow will step on another cow's teats. This 
usually occurs in the stall, especially where cows are 
crowded closely together in the barn. 

When cows are thus crowded closely together and where 
there is no post or partition of any kind between the cows 
they are likely to injure each other's udders seriously. 
When cows are lying down in their stalls with their feet 
towards each other, one or both may stretch and push the 
hind feet against the udder of the cow lying next to her. A 
post or partition coming within a foot of the gutter pre- 
vents this danger. 

Cow pox is another common cause of sore teats. This is 
contagious. The disease shows itself in numerous little 
water blisters on different parts of the teat. The disease 
is not serious, but causes considerable inconvenience to the 
milker and to the cow. The disease usually has to run its 
course. It lasts about ten days. The milker should be 
very careful not to carry the disease from one cow to an- 
other. He should carefully wash his hands in a disin- 
fectant solution after milking affected cows. It is also a 
good plan to milk such cows last. 

The cow should be milked gently, so as not to rupture 
the little blisters until skin has formed underneath and they 
dry up of their own accord. Apply freely the vaseline or 
the turpentine and lard salve mentioned above. 

Sore teats at times result from internal growths. Little 
lumps are formed on one side of the canal or opening in 
the teat. These at times may become so serious as to com- 
pletely obstruct the passage of the milk. If the trouble 
is not removed, the quarter itself will soon become swollen 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 223 

and sore. Sometimes such growths m the center of the 
teat are very difficult to handle. About the best way to 
treat such a cow is to disinfect thoroughly a milking tube 
and insert it into the teat. Allow the tube to remain until 
the growth has ceased, and even until it has disappeared, 
when the milking tube may be removed. The use of a teat 
slitter or bistoury is not advisable except in cass of neces- 
sity. Making an open wound internally simply makes ad- 
ditional trouble. 

Another cause of sore teats is warts. These are es- 
pecially troublesome if they are large and numerous. A 
good way to eliminate long warts is to take a thread soaked 
in a sterile solution and wrap it tightly around the base of 
the wart. In a short time the wart drops ofif. When this 
happens, the sore is entirely healed. The wart may be 
clipped off with a pair of sharp scissors, but this leaves a 
very tender sore on the teat. In case an open sore results, 
always apply a disinfectant and cover the wound with a 
salve. 

Hard milking cows are objected to by most milkers. To 
some extent this condition may be improved by inserting a 
teat expander in the end of the teat. The same thing may 
be accomplished with a small smooth wooden plug crowded 
into the end of the teat and made to stretch the sphincter 
muscle. Whatever is inserted should be very thoroughly 
sterilized first. If the cow is not a desirable dairy animal, 
it is advisable to eliminate her from the herd. At least, it 
is not a good plan to perpetuate her blood and raise her 
heifer calves for future cows. 

At times and immediately after freshening, the opening 
of the teat is clogged. This is not serious, and may be 
remedied by inserting a sterile silver milk tube. Usually 
this trouble is only temporary. It is due to some gelatinous 
substance that has dried at the opening of the teat. 

On the other hand, there are some cows that are so easy 
to milk that the milk leaks away between milkings, or it 
begins to run away as soon as milking time approaches. 



224 larsen's farm dairying 

Such cows should be milked first. There is no known per- 
manent remedy. It is a natural condition resulting from 
the sphincter muscle, at the end of the teat, being loosely 
drawn. Occasionally this condition results from cows 
having had the end of one or more teats injured. A Ittle 
collodion applied to the opening immediately after milking 
may prevent the leakage. 

Sv^^ollen udders. — At the time of freshening nearly all 
udders are swollen more or less. This is natural and to b3 
expected. This natural swelling at the time of fr3s!:ening 
usually disappears in a few days. A cow should not be 
fed too heavily on grain at this time, and should not be 
permitted to lie down on cold, damp ground. 

The common and troublesome swelling of a cow's udder 
is due to garget or mammites. It is a disease and is con- 
tagious. A streptococcic type of bacteria is the cause. The 
garget may attack the whole udder of a cow, but usuahy 
one quarter is affected at a time. The affected portion of 
the udder becomes swollen, very hard, and feverish. 

A gargety udder is very tender, and the milker should 
use patience and care. The milk at such a time is usi^ally 
stringy, and it may be bloody. Such milk should be dis- 
carded. 

A cow in this condition should be milked out several 
times a day. After each milking make a hot application of 
some kind. During fall and spring when the flies do not 
trouble, the warm milk from the cow may be applied and 
the udder bathed thoroughly in it. Hot water, containin-^ 
considerable salt so as to form a strong brine, may also be 
applied as hot as the cow can stand it. The care'aker 
should not be In a hurry, even If the process lasts 10 or 15 
minutes. After the affected portion of the udder bas b^en 
thoroughly soaked, then with a dry linen cloth carefully and 
gently rub it dry. Then apply salve made up as follows : 
2 parts of melted lard. 
1 part spirits of turpentine. 
1 part fluid extract of belladonna. 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 225 

Another good salve that is highly recommended is made 
up of : 

1 part fluid extract of pokeroot. 

1 part fluid extract of belladonna leaves. 

6 parts lard or sweet oil. 

In most serious cases it may be necessary to apply a hot 
poultice. This may be made up of bread and milk. The 
best kind of a poultice to apply is made up of antiphleges- 
tine, or from any of the pastes made up chiefly of kaoline. 
Before the latter poultice is applied, clip off all hairs from 
the cow's udder, then warm the antiphlegistine and put it 
on a cloth. The whole is bandaged against the affected 
part of the udder. The cow with a large swollen udder 
should always have an udder support on her. It may be 
made from a piece of good cloth or may be purchased 
already made. 

A cow having a serious case of garget should be given a 
good physic. From one pound to two pounds of epsom salts 
may be given her as a drench. Some recommend giving 
the cow affected with garget one ounce of saltpeter per day. 

Catarrh of the udder is another common disease affecting 
cows. This usually affects the inside membrane of the 
milk ducts. It is difficult to cure. With some cows the 
disease is chronic in nature. Hot applications are the best 
known remedies. 

Condition of Milker 

Clean and healthful milker. — Usually too little precau- 
tion is taken in order to keep milkers clean and neat during 
milking. Under average farm conditions it is probably not 
practical to advise wearing white suits, but the person 
should at least have on clean overalls and clothing that is 
not worn while doing other kinds of work. When produc- 
ing milk for direct human food the milker should wear 
a clean white suit. 

The milker should have clean hands and be prepared in 
every way to keep the milk perfectly sanitary. 



226 larsen's farm dairying 

It is very Important that the milker is healthy and es- 
pecially that he does not have any of the common con- 
tagious diseases. 

Manner of procedure. — The cow is usually milked from 
the right side ; but cows may be accustomed to being milked 
from both sides. Where one milker has a large number of 
cows to be milked, it is not at all uncommon for a milker 
not to change position. That is, the milker gets in between 
two cows and stays there until both cows have been milked. 
This will necessitate milking one cow on the right side and 
the other one on the left. It is probably best, however, to 
make it a rule to milk all cows only from the right side. 

The milker should at all times approach the cow gently. 
Do not in any way scare or make her nervous. 

Frequently the two front quarters are milked first. This 
provides more room for milking the hind quarters. There 
are milkers who prefer to milk the whole half on the side 
of the milker first. There are times when leaving the hind 
quarters to the last, the unmilked portion of the udder be- 
comes so distended and the teats so short that the milking 
is made much harder. The plan followed by most milkers 
is first to milk most of the milk from the teats that milk 
easiest. If the two front teats are easier to milk, then it is 
natural for the milker to empty them first. A portion of the 
milk from the hind quarter can in this manner be drawn 
through the front teats. Whatever method of procedure is 
followed, plan to make it uniform each time of milking. 

The most common and probably best way is for the 
milker to hold the pail between the knees. There are now 
special milking stools, a portion of which is made to hold 
the pail. The rapid milker usually does not want to be 
bothered with any of the patent milking stools. A piece of 
board nailed horizontally on top of a vertical piece of two 
by two of proper height to suit the particular milker is 
usually the best kind of a stool. Some milkers strap f ese 
stools to the body so the milker never needs to tak3 hold of 
it and never needs to handle the stool with the hands. 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 227 

Dry hand milking vs. wet hand milking. — There are 
many milkers who claim that they could not milk at all if 
they had to milk with dry hands. This is a mistake. Wet 
hand milking is only a bad, insanitary habit. The author 
used to think that wetting the hands and teats was neces- 
sary to successful hand milking. Milking one winter in an 
open shed where the temperature often was 20 degrees be- 
low zero completely converted him to milking with dry 
hands. This is much more sanitary and just as convenient. 

If one is so addicted to wet hand milking that he cannot 
quit, then keep a small supply of vaseline or turpentine 
salve on hand. A small pinch of this salve for each 
cow serves a much better purpose than wetting the hands 
with milk, and in addition, it helps to keep the teats in good 
condition. 

Milking the cow clean. — It is important that no milk be 
left in the cow's udder after each milking. If the milker 
habitually leaves some milk, the cow is likely to go dry 
earlier than she otherwise would. Moreover, the last milk 
in the cow's udder is the richest. It contains as high as 10 
to 12 percent of butter fat, while the first part milked con- 
tains only a fraction of a percent. The author knows of 
farmers who have advised the hired man to milk on^y as 
much as can be milked quickly. "Do not waste your time 
stripping the cows. Let the calves do that." Milking the 
cow by the combined efforts of the calf and the hired man 
is a very poor plan. One or the other should do it, and the 
owner should see that it is done well. So much milk m^y 
be left in the cow's udder that it will cause abnormal mi'k 
and diseased udders. The latter is a frequent result of 
indifferent and careless milking. 

Condition of Utensils 

Clean and sanitary utensils. — No one should use in- 
sanitary pails, cans, or separators. Everybody should have 
the desire to keep everything connected with human foods 
tidy and clean. The word ''clean" does not have the same 



228 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



meaning to everybody. What is clean to one person may 
be dirty to another. 

We say that the barn is clean, yet we would hesitate to 
work in the barn with our best clothes on. We say that 
the floor is clean, yet if some food from the table should 
fall from the floor, we would hesitate to eat it. We say 
that our plates from which we eat our meals are clean, yet a 
surgeon would not lay his instruments on them without 
sterilizing them before an operation, fearing that some un- 
desirable germs would be present. To produce clean milk 
and to keep it from spoiling, it is important that the pails, 
the cans, and other utensils be well cleaned and sterilized 
after each using. 

All utensils should be washed with a stiff brush in warm 
water containing some washing powder. Do not use a rag. 
Then each part should be rinsed in boiling water. It is just 
as effective, even more so, to sterilize them over a jet of 
steam. 

All milk should be strained through an eflicient and 
sanitary strainer into a clean bright can. 

If there is steam ob- 
tainable, all utensils 
should be steamed just 
before milking begins. 
Various experiments 
show that no matter how 
well the utensils have 
been cleaned, many 
germs or bacteria lodge 
on them between the 
cleaning and milking. 
Boiling hot water may 
take the place of steam. 

FIG. 78— Bacterial growth from hair of RiuSC the UtCUSlls off m 

cow. (T. H. Lund, Guelph Ag. College.) J|. thoroughly jUSt bcforC 

milking begins. A milk pail having a small top or opening 
should always be used. This greatly reduces the number of 




MILKING THE DAIRY COW 229 

germs that enter the milk from barn dust and from the side 
and udder of the cow. 

Kicking cows. — Usually when cows kick during milking 
there is some cause for it. Most heifers will kick more cr 
less when first milked. This is natural and usually it is 
net a vicious kick. The prudent milker r.ses care and gen- 
tleness. After the heifer has been milked a few times anl 
if the udder is not diseased, she soon learns that she is re- 
lieved each time and that it is to her benefit. 

Occasionally cows are found that are chronic kickers. 
The simplest way to deal with such individuals is to dispose 
of them for the block at the opportune time. Ur.til such a 
time the hind legs may be tied with a strap just above the 
hocks. There is an anti-kicking device on the market 
which works effectively. It consists of two wide iron 
hooks connected with a short chain. This chain may b^ 
lengthened and shortened to suit the individual cow. The 
tv.t) wide hooks fit on the hind legs just above the hock 
joints. 

Sucking cows. — There are cows which suck themselves. 
Such a cow is not worth much for dairy purposes. It is 
usually not worth the trouble to provide means that will 
prevent sucking. If it is a valuable breeding animal, the 
self-sucking habit may be prevented by putting a halter on 
her, and a surcingle around her heart girth. Then tie a 
staff on her, reaching from the halter to the surcingle on the 
side of her body. Some use a halter havi:\g long sharp 
prongs extending out from the nose band. Others slit the 
tongue part way, and others put a bull ring in the nose and 
suspend a second one from this. 

Trouble also results from individuals of the herd su:king 
each other. Kecently weaned calves are usually the per- 
petrators. ■ A halter having enough sharp prongs on the 
nose strap is usually sufificient to prevent this. If the habit 
continues, such animals should be kept separate, or else 
sold off from the herd entirely. 

Milking previous to freshening, — ^^Many dairy farmers 



230 larsen's farm dairying 

insist upon milking cows just previous to freshening. The 
udder many times becomes quite distended. This swelling 
of the udder is not always due to the presence of milk. 
Many times it is due to standing in a crowded stall and lying 
down on hard, cold surfaces. Repeatedly, the author has 
taken cows with such distended udders from the stall and 
put them into a well-bedded, roomy box stall, whereupon 
the swelling invariably goes down. Milking a cow will not 
help this kind of swelling very much. The owner or care- 
taker should be careful that the swelling is due to milk 
before any milking is done. 

Generally speaking, a cow should not be milked before 
freshening. This first milk nature intended that the calf 
should have. Milking just previous to freshening is not 
normal, either for the cow or the calf. 

There are instances where it is advisable to milk a cow 
before she freshens, but do not begin until it is necessary 
rmd until the cow shows signs of freshening within a short 
time. 

The swelling of the cow's udder alone is not a definite 
indication that she is going to freshen. The surest indica- 
tion that freshening time is approaching is when the muscles 
extending from the tail bone to the pin bone on each side of 
the tail head begin to loosen. When they loosen to such an 
extent that one can scarcely feel that there are muscles, then 
the cow will usually freshen within twelve hours. 

Resting period for the cow. — From a practical as well 
as experimental standpoint, it has been demonstrated that 
a cow that has from four to six weeks' rest each year will do 
better than will a cow that milks continuously from one 
freshening to the other. A few insist on giving cows a 
longer resting period than this. Some of the breeders of 
pure-bred cattle who expect to make maximum production 
with the cows let them go dry a much longer time than this. 

It is certain that when a cow milks clear up to the time of 
freshening she starts out afterwards at a much lower level 
of production. If she is given a rest she will more than 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 231 

make up for the amount she lost during the period she was 
dry. 

As previously mentioned, the cow should be well fed 
during this resting period, even though she is not giving any 
milk. It does not hurt to permit a cow to lay on flesh during 
this time. If she is the right kind of a dairy cow, she will 
milk it off. after freshening. It has been demonstrated by 
many practical men, and substantiated experimentally by 
Prof. C. H. Eckles of the Missouri station, that shortly 
after freshening most cows produce a higher percentage of 
fat in the milk than they do later on. In other words, a 
cow in good condition will milk off her surplus flesh during 
the first few weeks and nionths after freshening. 

It is also considered that this resting period enables the 
cow to nourish the calf, or fetus, better than if she were 
compelled to give milk also. 

There are a few cows so persistent in milk production 
that it is difficult to dry them up. When the time comes to 
dry up a cow, take away her grain ration and give h2r only 
hay, wild hay or timothy hay. Milk her only once a day 
for about one week, then milk her only every other day, 
then only every three days. Do not use this milk from the 
latter milking. So long as the cow is milked once a day the 
milk is normal. When the cow gives only about 10 pounds 
of milk per day the milking can be omitted entireV. Watch 
the udder carefully and see that it does not harden and 
swell. When the cow is dried up, it may then be a good 
plan to milk out some of the abnormal milk in the udder. 
It does not hurt to leave milk in the cow's udder so long as 
the udder does not becoriie diseased. The system will absorb 
what is therein. After the cow is dry, begin to give her 
some grain again. 

Lengthening milking period. — The author is not pre- 
pared to say that the persistency of milk production may be 
increased by lengthening the lactation period of a cow. He 
has, however, observed that a cow may develop the habit of 
giving milk only a short time. It seems reasonable that if 



232 larsen's far:,i dairying 

a cow's milking period can be made habitually shorter, It 
may also be lengthened. The author makes a practice of 
not mating the heifers too early after the first freshening. 
He believes that a heifer should milk at least ten months the 
first lactation period. 

It is difficult to prove this point experimentally, as no 
one can say definitely whether the results of such an ex- 
periment may not be due merely to the individuality of the 
animal. 

Milk fever. — Milk fever is a disease which used to be 
dreaded very much. It usually attacks the largest produc- 
ins: cows in the herd. So far as known, it never attacks 
heifers. It is usually mature and aged cows that contract 
the disease. 

Milk fever generally occurs the first few days after fresh- 
ening, though the disease may occur several weeks after it. 
The author has known cows that had milk fever twice after 
freshening. The first signs of milk fever are usually partial 
paralysis of the limbs and a v/orried look in the eye of the 
cow. The cow trembles. She is unable to control her hind 
quarters. Finally she loses control of her muscles entirely 
and is unable to get up. 

Milk fever used to be fatal in nearly every instance. 
Then Prof. Schmidt of Denmark discovered the potassium 
iodide method of treatment. This is said to have saved 
about 60 percent of the milk fever cases that were treated. 
Later Prof. Anderson, also from Denmark, discovered the 
air treatment for milk fever. This latter method consists 
of injecting sterile air into the cow's udder. Usually the 
cow is first milked out. Then with a special pump sterile 
air is pumped into the cow's udder until it is full and dis- 
tended. Then a band is tied around the ends of the teats 
so the air does not escape. With hard milking cows this 
latter is not necessary. The udder is then gently massaged. 
In a few hours the cow usually recovers. The author has 
not experienced a single case where this treatment has 
failed to perfect a cure. 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 233 

In the absence of the special pumps, an ordinary bicycle 
pump may be used. The author has used this several times 
with good success. An ordinary quill may be used as a 
connection between the pump and the cow's udder. By this 
method the air is not sterilized, and such air may cause in- 
fection of the cow's udder ; hence it should be used only in 
cases of necessity. 

Keep air in the cow's udder after she improves and is 
able to stand on her feet. It is well to pump up the udder 
two or three times. It is one of the simplest and surest 
remedies for an otherwise very serious disease. 

To prevent milk fever, avoid feeding the cow heavily on 
grain immediately before and immediately after freshening. 
The flow of milk should be brought on gradually. 

Some recommend not drawing all of the niilk from the 
cow's udder immediately before and immediately after 
freshening. Milk out only about one-half of the milk at 
first, just enough to release the distended udder. Then 
next time draw out about three-fourths of the milk. It is 
claimed that this is nature's method and that a cow treated 
in this manner is not so likely to contract milk fever. 

Handling the cow at freshening time. — Freshening time 
is a time when great care is necessary. It is usually the 
time when cows receive setbacks. If a cow does not do 
well during the freshening period, she is not likely to do 
well as a producer during the whole lactation period. The 
herdsman's skill and ability are usually tested to the maxi- 
nnim during this time, and it might be stated that it is usu- 
ally at this stage that the inexperienced herdsmen make 
their failures. 

The risks of the freshening period may be greatly reduced 
by attention, care, and good judgment on the part of the 
herdsman. 

When possible, the cow should be put into a box stall 
previous to freshening, sufficiently early so that she may 
become accustomed to the new surroundings. It is not 
absolutely necessary that a cow have a box stall. A cow 



234 larsen's farm dairying 

may be heavily bedded and allowed to freshen in her regular 
stall in the barn, and the calf removed at once. This latter 
method is used almost entirely in Denmark. To remove the 
cow to a box stall is, however, strongly to be recommended. 
When the cow is ready to freshen, and especially at night, 
it is a good plan to put a halter on her and tie hsr to the 
manger in the box stall. If a cow is allowed to run looss, 
she may get the rear part of her body into such a position 
against the wall as seriously to interfere with the delivery 
of the calf. Besides, she may lie down in a part of the stall 
where it is impossible for the attendant to give her the 
necessary assistance. Most heifers need help. 

As has been previously stated, the normal position of the 
calf is fore feet first and the nose resting between the knees 
and the forehead uppermost. The attendant should not be 
too hasty in assisting the cow. Most mature cows in good 
condition will freshen without any assistance. With heifers 
it is different. A rope tied around the fore legs of the calf 
will enable the attendant to assist. The attendant should 
not pull on the calf except when the cow assists by 
straining. 

In case of abnormal position of the calf, the attendant 
should endeavor to get him into proper position to be born. 
If both legs are not out, the calf should be pushed back a 
trifle so that both feet will come first. This is especially 
true in case a calf is born backwards. At times calves can- 
not be delivered in this latter position. If this be the case, 
then the calf should be pushed back and turned around into 
the normal position. 

In another connection the author has pointed out that it 
is usually best to leave the calf with its mother two or three 
days. It calms her and it is good for the calf. The cow 
should be milked in addition. Some prefer to take the calf 
away. They claim that a heifer will not long for her calf 
so much, and that she comes to her milk much quicker if 
the calf is not allowed to be with her. The method may be 
considered optional with the individual herdsman. The 



MILKING THE DAIRY COW 235 

author prefers to leave the calf with its mother two or 
three days. The mother's milk cannot be used anyhow for 
about this length of time, and it gives the calf a splendid 
start. 

Under normal conditions, the cow should clean a few 
hours after freshening. If the afterbirth does not come 
within 24 hours, it should be removed. Any herdsman 
should be able to do this successfully. He should s^e that 
his nails are trimmed and hands cleaned very thoroughly 
and disinfected. The hand is gently inserted for the 
purpose of removing the afterbirth. 

When the afterbirth has been removed, then irrigate the 
cow with a mild disinfectant. From one to two ounces of 
salt in one gallon of boiled water, cooled to 100 degrees F,, 
makes a splendid douche for the vaginal tract. 



CHAPTER XII 



METHODS OF MILKING 



The milking of cows may be done in two ways, by hand 
and by machine. 

Hand Milking 

Discussions in the previous chapter refer to hand milk- 
ing. There is much difference in hand milkers. Some can 
milk rapidly without causing discomfort to the cow. Others, 
again, will cause discomfort to the cow no matter how 
slowly they milk. The hand milker must be able to under- 
stand the cow and to adjust himself to her. 

The hands and fingers must be used in such a way as to 
imitate nature's way as closely as possible. The upper part 
of the hand or the thumb and forefinger should close around 
the teat. Then the other fingers should close gradually as 
the milk is pressed out. The milker should avoid pressing 
against the teat with the end of the fingers and the nails. 




FIG. 79 — Cows standing in the gutter with their hind feet are difficult 
to keep clean. 

236 



METHODS OF MILKING 



237 



An average good hand milker will milk about eight cows 
per hour. A professional hand milker, or one who does 
nothing else, will easily milk 10 cows per hour. In large 
dairies, where such a man is employed, the milker usually 
has to milk 25 cows twice daily. Such a man is usually 
paid about $40 a month, board and lodging. Counting 
board and lodging worth $20 a month, this would mean a 
cost of 8 cents per cow for milking alone, or about the value 
of a quart of milk. 




FIG. 80 — A sanitary dairy bam, stalls of right length. 



On dairy farms where special milkers are employed, the 
milking is usually begun at 12 o'clock midnight and 12 
o'clock at noon, or soon thereafter, as it is necessary to get 
the milk to the consumers early in the morning and early in 
the evening. This insures fresh milk to the consumers c,t 
all times. 

As soon as possible after the milk has been drawn, it is 
aerated, cooled, bottled, and delivered. In some instances 
the milk is also clarified and pasteurized. On the average 
dairy farm the milking should be done at seasonable hours 
of the day. 



238 larsen's farm dairying 

Machine Milking 

On large dairy farms machine milking has become quite 
common. It is generally considered that when a person has 
20 cows with good udders and teats, has a reasonably good 
barn, has the facilities for handling the milking machine, 
and a steady, interested, and intelligent operator, the milk- 
ing machine can be economically operated. 

Chief parts of the milking machine. — One of the chief 
parts of a milking machine is the pail and the pulsator. The 
pail is usually conical in shape, wide at the bottom and rela- 
tively narrow at the top. It is somewhat heavier in 
structure than the average tin pail. This is necessary to 
withstand the greater outside air pressure when the machine 
is in operation. The partial vacuum within the pail when 
the machine is in operation is about one-half an atmosphere, 
or nearly 7^ pounds. This latter is equal to 15 inches on 
the gage which comes with the milking machine outfit. 
The pail capacity is also larger than that of the ordinary 
pail. 

The cover fits on the top of the pail like a lid. A rubber 
ring acts as a cushion between the top of the pail and the 
under part of the cover. As soon as a vacuum is created 
in the pail, the cover is tightly drawn against the edge of 
the pail, making it air-tight. When the suction in the pail 
is relieved, the cover, with all of its attachments, can easily 
be removed. 

Most of the milking machines have the pulsator attached 
directly to the top of the cover, thus making the cover an 
important part of the milking machine. The chief duty of 
the pulsator is to cause alternate suction and release. The 
first pulsators used on milking machines were put on the 
pipe line. This did not work very successfully. The later 
pulsators operate by vacuum and not by pressure. 

Teat cups and rubber tubing constitute the real milking 
device. The teat cup is one of the important parts of the 
milking machine. The teat cups in the dififerent machines 



METHODS OF MILKING 239 

vary a great deal. Some of the machines have a straight, 
hard, conical-shaped cup. Others have a straight cup with 
a rubber sleeve extending through the cup and an air space 
cushion between this rubber sleeve and the outside of the 
cup. Others again have cups made entirely of rubber which 
collapses on one side. Other machines have cups made 
entirely of glass. Some have the universal teat cups, or just 
one size for all cows. Other machines have different cups 
for different sized teats. 

Rubber tubing connects the cups with the inlet to the pail. 
There are thus two inlets through the cover of the double 
unit machines, or the machines that milk two cows into one 
pail. In addition, there is a heavy rubber tubing connecting 
the milking machine to the vacuum pipe running in front of 
the cow. This piece of rubber tubing, of necessity, must be 
stiffer and heavier than the other tubing, so as to prevent it 
from collapsing. 

The vacuum iron pipes running in front of the cows are 
usually one-inch pipes, and are connected with the vacuum 
tank and pump in the powder room. Some of the milking 
machines have no pipe line at all. A small pump, which 
supplies the right amount of vacuum and relief, is fastened 
and operated near the cow. 

On the vacuum pipe in the barn there are a gage and a 
safety valve. The safety valve can be set to admit air into 
the system whenever a certain vacuum has been obtained. 
This obviates the danger of applying too much suction on 
the teat cups. Nearly all of the machines operate with from 
15 to 17 inches of vacuum, or about one-half atmosphere. 

The vacuum tank is placed between the vacuum pump 
and the vacuum pipes. This tank serves two chief purposes : 
to make suction more uniform and to act as a vacuum suppV 
tank. If there was no larger supply of vacuum than just 
what was stored in the pipe line, then the vacuum would 
go down too low whenever the cups were taken off or put 
on. or in case one of the teat cups should happen to fall off. 

The vacuum. pump is one of the necessary parts of the 



240 

milking machine. The style of pump varies a great deal. 
Some use the rotary pump. Others use the pump having 
the up and down stroke. This pump is in operation all the 
time while the milking is being done. 

It is necessary to have power of some kind. The amount 
of necessary power depends upon the number of units or 
milking machines in use. A two horse power engine is 
plenty large enough for two double units or for milking four 
cows at a time. Usually it is best to purchase a larger 
engine — one that may be used for grinding and other pur- 
poses as well. It is, however, not economical to run too 
large an engine for pulling so light a load. 

In case electricity is available, a small motor is most 
desirable. This gives steady power. 

The cost of a milking machine outfit varies. A double 
unit, or one pail with all of its attachments, costs about $125. 
The piping and the pump cost in addition about $75. A 
person should have at least two double units or three single 
units. Such an outfit costs, then, on the average a little 
more than $300 without power. The price varies some- 
what according to the kind of machine installed. 

The cost of operation. — With such an outfit, one 
operator should be able to milk on the average about 20 
cows per hour. If a man is employed to do nothing else but 
the milking, and if he milks the same length of time as is 
required by hand milking, as discussed in a previous para- 
graph, he should be able to milk about 50 cows in 2^ hours. 
If the milker is paid the same as in the case of hand milk- 
ing, about $60 per month, the cost of milking for labor 
per cow per day would be 4 cents, which means that the 
cost of the labor has been cut in two. The interest on the 
investment and the repairs in case of machine milking also 
have to be considered. Counting the interest, repairs, depre- 
ciation, washing and disinfectant at $150 a year, the added 
cost per cow per day would be about 1 cent, or a total of 
5 cents per cow per day to get the milking done by machine, 



METHODS OF MILKING 



241 



while it costs a1:>oiit 8 cents per cow per clay to get it done 
by hand. 

Breaking cows to milking machine. — The author has ex- 
perimented with eleven different types of milking machines 
and used them on Ayrshires, Guernseys, Jerseys, Holsteins, 
Shorthorns, and grades. In about seven years only one cow 
has been found which could not be broken to the milking 
machine. She was a grade Hereford. One milking 
machine expert stated that in all of his experience he has 
never seen a cow like her. It was not the action of the ter^t 
cups that excited her, but the clicking noise of the pulsator 
at her side. This annoyed her greatly. She has been in 
this herd continuously and she still objects just as seriously 
as ever to the use of the milking machine. 

All of the other cows in the herd took readily to the 
milking machine. Heifers are even more easily broken to 
the milking machine than they are to hand milking. 

The cows that give 
the most milk, that 
have square, symmetri- 
cal udders held close to 
the body, seem to be 
best adapted to the 
milking machine. 

It is best not to at- 
tach the machine at 
once. Allow the cow 
to get used to the 
clicking noise of the machine. When she gets used to this 
a little, then gently rub the cow's udder and get her to give 
down the milk. Then attach the machine. Do not leave 
the machine on the cow too long at first. It is better to 
leave a little more of the stripping to be done by hand than 
would regularly be the case. 

Difference in cov^^s for machine milking. — No two cows 
milk exactly the same. Even within one breed there is 
much difference in the manner in which the cows milk. 




K(Ui5(. 



Extraction* 



FIG. 81 — Shows cross section of cow's udder 

and illustrates the three processes that must 

function together during milking. 



242 



larsen's farm dairying 



This difference has been noticed by a!l hand milkers. Each 
cow must, therefore, be handled and milked differently. If 
all of the cows were handled and milked al.ke by machines, 
mechanical milking could not be said to be a success, but by 
understanding individual cows and adjusting the milking 
machine in accordance with the characteristics of the cow, 
there will be very few cows that cannot be milked success- 
fully with a milking machine. The difference in the suita- 
bility of cows to be milked mechanically was once brought 
to the mind of the author very forcibly. A certain person 




FIG. 82 — These two large producing cows were milked with a mechanical 
milker during five consecutive lactation periods. 

purchased a milking machine. It was operated only a short 
time when its use was discontinued. This same machine 
was then purchased second-hand by another man. He was 
very successful from the beginning, and continued to be suc- 
cessful. In fact, he was so successful with it that he later 
purchased an additional unit. Another dairy farmer, who 
owned a herd of pure-bred dairy cattle, also purchased a 
milking machine. The herdsman used it for a few months 
and then quit. This same machine was purchased by an- 
other dairy farmer, also owning a herd of pure-bred dairy 



METHODS OF MILKING 243 

cattle, and he was successful with it. The difference must 
lie either in the cows or in the man who operates the 
machine. 

There is much difference in the nervous temperament of 
cows. Some cows are quiet and appear never to ba excited. 
They pay little attention to wdiether they are milked by 
hand or w^hether they are milked by machine. Other cows, 
again, are sensitive. This is true if milked by hand or by 
machine. A few cows in a herd may at first refuse to give 
down their milk completely. However, if the machine is 
operated by the regular attendant, and the cow is properly 
prepared, then the cows that will not milk well from the 
first are few in number. In fact, it may be said that they 
are limited to some few that give only a very small amount 
of milk and are very nervous. 

Machine milking should not he forced too fast. Allow 
the cow a reasonable amount of time to get adjusted to the 
new method of milking. Immediately after freshening, or 
when cows are first taken from the calf, some cows give 
down their milk reluctantly. Excitement of any kind is 
likely to cause the cow to hold up the milk, whether milked 
ty hand or by niachine. Due consideration should be given 
cows in this condition. It is not advisable to start the milk- 
ing machine too. soon after freshening. At this time the 
milk from one or more of the quarters is likely to be 
abnormal. 

Cows releasing milk slowly. — Some cows give down 
their milk very slowly. They may be grouped under three 
heads : 

First, some cows do not readily give down their milk 
w^hen milking begins ; while others give down their milk as 
soon as the milker approaches them, or as soon as the milk- 
ing machinery begins to operate. This rapidity of giving 
down the milk may, in some instances, be a habit of the 
cow. The writer, however, is led to believe that the manner 
of giving down the milk is natural and, therefore, is an 
inherited characteristic. 



244 larsen's farm dairying 

Second, some cows give down their milk very slowly, or 
little by little. Usually cows belonging to this class are not 
heavy milkers, and such cows do not milk well with milk- 
ing machines. This slowness of releasing the milk may ba 
due to two things. It may be due to simple inability to let 
down the milk readily. The milk ducts may not be suffi- 
ciently large to allow the milk to come down raoidly from 
the upper part of the udder. This is a natural characteristic 
and cannot be changed. Or it may be due to the cow's will- 
fully holding up her milk and releasing it only at intervals 
or in jets. 

Whether this slow release of milk is voluntary or in- 
voluntary, it seriously interferes with the operation of the 
milking machine. 

Third, there are some cows that readily give down from 
one-half to three-fourths of the milk. The remainder is 
released very slowly and is often held up entirely by the 
cow when milked by machine. Such cows show a large 
percentage of milk in the form of strippings. If such cows 
are given time to release the milk fully before the machine 
is attached, and the work of the machine is not forced in the 
last stage of milking, this form of slow milking can be 
perceptibly helped. 

Start machine in the early part of the lactation perioi. — 
Some cows milk well by machine throughout the whole lac- 
tation period, while others respond quickly and read'ly to 
the milking machine only during the first part of th^ milk- 
ing period and during the last part they are irregular. This 
is true when milked by hand and true when milked by 
machine. The hand milker, however, can adjust the milk- 
ing to the cow. He knows exactly when the slowness of 
giving down the milk begins. The adjustment of the work- 
ing of the milking machine to suit such a cow is not so easy. 

Generally speaking, the latter part of the lactation period 
is not a good time in which to introduce the milking 
machine. Some of the cows are likely to hold up their milk 



METHODS OF AIILKING 245 

often enough and long enough to cause the cow to dry- 
earlier than she otherwise should. 

It is the different kinds of slow-milking milkers that are 
likely to cause most of the troubles encountered with milk- 
ing machines. Those who have milked by hand know that 
about a pint of milk can be drawn from all cows. It is not 
necessary to w^ait for a cow to give down this milk. It is 
stored in the niilk cistern in the lower parts of the cow's 
udder. A cow has no control over this. The obtaining of 
this milk is mechanical. It would be an easy matter to make 
a milking machine successful if all of the milk from a cow 
were drawn in a similar manner. It would simply be a 
matter of extraction of milk from the cow's udder. In this 
respect practically all of the milking machines, at least those 
in use in the experiments, have wonderful adaptability. 

There are three processes involved during milking which 
must function harmoniously together: the secretion, the 
release, and the extraction. 

When the first part of the milk has been drawn, the hand 
milker must wait until the cow releases or gives down her 
milk. Then the hand milker proceeds to milk two teats. In 
a short time there is no more milk. The hand milker then 
changes the operation to the other two tests. When there 
is no more milk in these, he returns to the first two, and so 
on until the cow is dry. 

The milking machine is unable to do this changing from 
one-half to the other half of the udder, and to stop milking 
and wait for more milk. The milking operation is continu- 
ous. The machine is not conscious of the time when the 
milk supply runs low. Unless the milk has been released 
by the cow, it is not in the lower part of the udder to be 
drawn by the milking machine. 

If no milk is released by the cow, the suction and 
pulsation of the machine are applied to the internal udder 
tissue of the cow instead of to the milk. When this happens 
there is much danger of the cow's willfully holding ba-rk, 
and she does not give down or release her milk normally. 



246 larsen's farm dairying 

The internal part of the cow's udder at this stage of milking 
is to some extent sensitive to this action of the milking 
machine. Some cows show signs of opposition and even 
discomfort by drawing up the stomach. When such a con- 
dition i.^ reached, the milking machine and cow are working 
at cross purposes and not harmoniously. The cow holds up 
her milk and the machine continues to draw. This condi- 
tion the operator should seek to avoid if he expects the 
milking machine to work successfully. 

There is a difference between the action of the milking 
machine on cows that are holding up their milk, on cows 
that are entirely dry, and on cows that are partially milked. 

Holdk.g up of the milk and letting down only a small 
amoum of it at a time interfere with the proper working of 
the milking machine. The applied vacuum from the ma- 
chine is constant. As soon as the cow begins to release, the 
vacuum extends on up into the milk ducts and draws the 
milk quicker than it can be released. This the cow cannot 
stand, and when it occurs she immediately shuts off the milk 
supply to prevent the vacuum from going further into the 
milk ducts. 

The cow that is entirely milked dry has closed all of the 
avenues leading to the mammary gland. These are closed 
continuously and there is no chance for the vacuum to act 
on any other parts of the udder than on the inside of the 
teat and milk cistern. With the amount of vacuum gener- 
ally used (15 inches), few cows object to this. 

At times one portion of a cow's udder is milked out 
quicker than the rest. It often happens that a cow has small 
front quarters. They contain less milk and are, therefore, 
milked out the quickest. This rapidity of milking the less 
capacious quarters of the udder is increased by the weight 
of the teat cups being largely on the quarter held up ths 
highest. The cow may be giving down her milk rapidly 
and completely, and the milking machine doing good work 
until the front quarters are empty. When this happens, 
then the vacuum begins to extend up into the teats and 



METHODS OF MILKING 247 

even into the gland proper. The cow objects to this. She 
immediately shuts off the passage ways. The cow cannot 
shut off one or two quarters and release the others. As a 
consequence a portion of the cow's udder is milked out 
entirely dry and the other portion is not. It is up to the 
operator to see that such cows are properly stripped out. 

Symmetrical and well-shaped udders important. — The 
milking machines have a very wide range of adaptability for 
milking cows having unevenly shaped udders and teats of 
different sizes. However, if the udders of a few cows in 
the herd are abnormal, the required adjustments will 
probably be so numerous that machine milking will be more 
or less discouraging. Some herds contain cows whose hind 
udders hang low and the front udders high, or vice versa. 
The portion of the udder that hangs high carries the great- 
est part of the weight of the teat cups. As has been pre- 
viously mentioned, weight applied to the teat cups causes 
the cow to milk out quicker. This means that one portion 
of the udder will milk out quicker than the other. At times 
such uneven milking may cause the teat cups to fall off. 
The skin of the empty part of the udder may fold. Air 
may be let in and in this way the cups may be released. It 
is evident that the length of the rubber tubes could be 
adjusted so that the weight on the four unevenly placed 
teats would be the same, but this would mean a change of 
tubes and cups every time such a cow is milked. 

There are also cows having teats of uneven size and 
shape, and teats of poor quality for a milking machine. 
While it is true that there are very few cows having such 
abnormally shaped teats that the machine cannot milk them, 
with the aid of the right sort of an operator, it is also true 
that cows having well-shaped and medium-sized teats are 
easier to milk by machine and the teat cups are much easier 
to attach properly. 

When teats are of proper size and shape, the milking 
machine gets a stronger and better hold, and there is less 
danger of having sore teats. 



248 

Occasionally the teats on machine-milked cows become 
hard, red, feverish, and a trifle swollen at the end. This 
soreness probably is due to a congestion of the blood caused 
by the steady suction. The soreness usually gradually dis- 
appears and will do so without necessitating the removal of 
the milking machine. It is possible that the quality of the 
teat may be a partial cause of this trouble. Some teats are 
soft and of very fine texture, while others are coarser in 
the make-up and are able to stand the constant wear of the 
milking machines. 

In the average herd, there is only a small percentage of 
cows with such undesirable udders and teats. The prudent 
milking machine operator will cull such cows from the herd 
as soon as he can consistently do so. Such cows usually are 
not desirable to perpetuate in the herd anyhow. 

From a commercial standpoint, the success of a milking 
machine is judged not so much by the large number of cows 
that milk well with it, as the small number of cows in the 
herd which cause the difficulties. If three or four cows in 
a certain herd appear to give a full flow of milk at one milk- 
ing and a small flow at another, or if the teat cups fall off 
from one or more of the cows, or if one or more of the 
cows have caked udders, or if some of the teats are hard and 
sore at the end, or if the cows go dry three or four months 
previous to freshening, the milking machine is likely to be 
blamed. 

Select and breed right cows. — If the milking machine is 
going to be a potent and stable factor in dairy farming in 
the future, dairy farmers must make an effort to select and 
breed cows that readily give down the milk, that have 
square, symmetrical udders held up close to the body, and 
that have teats of proper size and shape. 

No heifers should be raised from cows that have un- 
desirable udders. 

The most important point in this connection is to use great 
care in selecting the herd bull. The wise dairyman will 
select a bull that comes from large producing ancestors, that 



METHODS OF MILKING 249 

is pure of blood, and of good type. In addition, the female 
ancestors should have had well-shaped mammary organs 
and should have milked well. The male ancestors should be 
known to have daughters having milking characteristics 
that are suitable for mechanical milking. A tried sire, 
known to put good mammary organs on his daughters, is a 
good acquisition in a herd. 

By thus applying care in tliis selection and breeding in the 
herd, in a short time none of the cows will be left that cause 
the chief difficulties in the successful operation of the 
milking machine. 

Operator should understand principles and manner of 
milk elaboration. — The operator of a milking machine co- 
ordinates the machine and the cow. In order to do this, he 
should thoroughly understand the milking machine and each 
cow in the herd. Does she milk easily or with difficulty? 
Does she give her milk down only after an interval, or 
immediately after the milking machine is attached? Does 
she give down milk slowly, or quickly? Does she milk out 
well, or is there much stripping to be done? These are 
some of the things the operator must understand. He 
should have a complete conception of the manner in which 
the milk comes from each of the cows in the herd. 

When a cow is being milked, three processes occur : The 
first is the secretion of the milk. This occurs within the 
mammary gland. It is in progress all the time. It is a 
natural function and an involuntary act. It cannot be con- 
trolled by the cow nor by the milking machine operator. 
This secretion of milk is closely connected with the nervous 
system of the cow. Through the nervous system, both the 
cow and the machine operator may affect, though not con- 
trol, the secretion of milk. Probably an occasional or tem- 
porary excitement of the cow will not affect the milk 
secretion or work of the machine, but should this provoca- 
tion continue, the production of the cow and the success of 
the milking machine would, without doubt, be hindered. 

The second process is the release of the milk. This is a 



250 larsen's farm dairying 

very important part for the user of the milkmg machine to 
understand. The flow of the milk from the upper part of 
the udder to the lower part is controlled by the cow. The 
manufacture or secretion of the milk organs in the mam- 
mary gland occurs chiefly in the upper part of the cow's 
udder. The cistern or the milk reservoir is in the lower 
part of the cow's udder, or just above the teats. These 
extreme lower and upper parts of the cow's udder are con- 
nected by means of a complex system of tubes and vacuoles. 
These serve to conduct and store the milk within the cow's 
udder. These milk ducts branch and rebranch. The open- 
ing and closing of these tubes or ducts are controlled by 
most cows. 

If the milking machine in any way produces discomfort 
to the cow, she is likely to hold up her milk. A cow having 
a very distended udder, or giving a large flow of milk, is 
not likely to do this, but if the discomfort of the machine is 
greater to the cow than the discomfort of retaining the milk, 
then the cow^ is likely to hold up her milk entirely or to give 
the milk little by little. This will either cause much strip- 
ping by hand, or if the stripping is not done, it will tend t0 
dry up the cow early and may even cause diseased udders. 

The third process is the extraction of the milk from the 
cow. Aside from the small amount of milk (about one pint) 
stored in the milk cistern, the machine cannot extract the 
remainder of the milk without the aid of the cow. Some 
have used the milking machine as though milking was only 
a question of extraction. If this were the only point to 
consider, the milking machine would be almost perfect. The 
use of milking machines has in a measure given the public 
the impression that extraction of the milk is all there is to 
a successful operation of a mechanical milker. The ran^e 
of mechanical adaptability of the milking machines for ex- 
traction of milk from different cows is certainly great. 
Nevertheless, the cow is a living individual, and the milking 
machine cannot be attached and the milk drawn out as 
though she were some inanimate object. 



METHODS OF MILKING 



251 



In the beginning of the lactation period all cows are more 
nearly alike than at other times. The further the cows 
advance in the milking period, the greater the difficulties as 
to the manner of milking will be. It is especially with cows 
far advanced in the lactation period that the milking ma- 
chine operator must learn to make the milking machine do 
good work throughout the year, and one year after the 
other. 

Fit milking machine to cow. — The milking machine 
operator must not be in too big a hurry to attach the milking 
machine. Some cows give down the milk immediately, but 
others do not. Some cows will give down their milk as 
soon as the milking machinery begins to move. Others 
give down their milk as soon as the milk pail is at their side, 
and with still others the operator must coax by massaging 
and gently working with the udder. 

The operator should slightly moisten the teats and bring 
them into normal condition. On cold, wet days, the teats 

will be wrinkled and 
short. Before the 
cups are attached, the 
teats should be 
brought into normal 
shape. The operator 
should see that the 
teat cups get a proper 
grip on the teats. 

Cows should be 
made to give down 
milk before machine 
is attached. — The 
operator can easily 
tell when a cow has 
given down the milk. 
The teats and lower part of the udder will become warm 
and the teats fill full. Take time and prepare the cow 
properly before the machine is attached. 




FIG. 83 — Teat cups of Tri'lkiTie: mPoViinp s^ou^d 

not be attached tin teats have been brought 

into normal shape. 



252 



larsen's farm dairying 



The operator should see that the teat cups properly fit the 
cow. Some of the machines have the universal teat cup. 
It has a vi^ide range of adaptability. Other machines have 
different sized cups to fit cows having teats of different 
sizes. The milking machine operator should also understand 
how to regulate the 
pulsation to suit the 
individual cow. The 
rate of speed of the 
pulsator varies with 
the different ma- 
chines. Even the 
length of the suction 
and the length of re- 
lease in the pulsator 
varies. These the 
operator should un- 
derstand how to ad- 
just so as to make the 
machine do more effi- 
cient work without discomfort to the cow. A short, rapid 
pulsation is not suitable for a cow with long teats that is a 
hard milker. On the other hand, a long, slow pulsation is 
not conducive to rapid milking if the cow has short teats 
and is an easy milker. No rules can be laid down for this. 
The operator must use his own judgment. 

Milking machine surroundings should not be too cold. 
On farms where dairying is made a specialty, conditions 
are usually favorable for obtaining good results with the 
milking machine. The milking machine may be operated in 
any kind of a barn or shed, but in cold weather open and 
cold barns may cause so many little troubles that the person 
is likely to become discouraged with the work of the milking 
machine. Under such conditions, also, the cows sometimes 
shrink and are reluctant to let down their milk. The 
pulsator does not work well in frosty surroundings. The 




FIG. 84 — Showing condition of teats of the 

same cow. Fig. 83, when ready to have teat 

cups attached. 



METHODS OF MILKING 253 

moisture in the connectors and in the vacuum pipes freezes. 
The moist rubber tubes and teat cups may become icy when 
removed from the disinfectant solution and also after 
rinsing in water. The disinfectant solution is also likely 
to freeze. This latter, at least in part, may be prevented by 
adding salt to form a brine. A reasonably warm barn is 
one of the prerequisites for the most successful and agree- 
able use of the milking machine. 

It is also a great advantage to have heating facilities for 
conveniently obtaining hot water for cleaning the parts of 
the milking machine, and even steam for sterilizing and 
cleaning the pails. A five horse power submerged flue 
upright boiler in the wash room near the milk room is a 
very handy and valuable adjunct to the dairy. If the 
machine and the different parts have to be taken to the 
house each time to be cleaned and sterilized, it makes 
considerable bother. 

Keep milking machine sanitary.— The sanitary aspect 
cannot be neglected in any phase of the dairy business. 
Milk decomposes readily. Any portion not removed from 
the rubber tubes, cups, and other parts of the milking 
machine, and allowed to remain in them for any length of 
time, is sure to bring about insanitary conditions. 

The milking machine is very efficient in excluding all 
kinds of visible dirt. The sediment from the udder, sides 
of the cow, and barn surroundings, at times seen in hand- 
drawn milk, has no chance to gain access to milk drawn by 
the milking machine. However, special care needs to be 
used in order to keep strictly sanitary the teat cups, tubing, 
and pails. If this is not done, the bacterial content of the 
milk will run very high. 

That these different parts of the milking machine are a 
constant source of germs is clearly seen from the following 
figures : The average number of germs per cubic centimeter 
in the milk drawn from the first cow milked with the ma- 
chine, although kept sanitary, was 5325. The average 
number of germs in a cubic centimeter of milk from the 



254 larsen's farm dairying 

second cow, drawn by the same niaculne, was 3017, and 
from the third cow, milked by the same machine, the 
number per cubic centimeter was 3012. 

The different parts of the machine were kept in a sani- 
tary condition ; otherwise the germ content would have run 
extremely high with the first cow. The pail, rubber tub:s, 
and all cups were thoroughly cleaned and scalded. Th- 
tubing and cups were kept in a disinfectant solution between 
milkings. The milk pail, after being cleaned, rinsed, and 
steamed, was kept in the milk room in an inverted position 
on a shelf between milkings. 

The above data shows that even though great care is 
taken, the tubing and pails are a source of germs in the 
milk. \Miere certified milk is desired, the pail should hz 
thoroughly steamed just previous to milking. 

A practical way of keeping a milking machine sanitary is 
to rinse it thoroughly after milking is completed, before the 
milk dries on to the different parts. This is accomplished 
by having a vacuum connection in the wash room, and then 
attaching the machine to the vacuum pipe. Then insert the 
teat cups in the rinse water and slowly raise them up and 
down. This causes the rinse water to gush back and forth 
and wash off the remainder of the milk. Then take the 
machine apart, and with special brushes these parts are 
cleaned in lukewarm water containing some washing pow- 
der. Then rinse these different parts in clean water and 
transfer them into the disinfectant solution. 

There are several disinfectants from which such a solu- 
tion may be made up. The author has experimented with 
a large number of them and has come to the conclusion 
that for cheapness, simplicity, and effectiveness, all con- 
sidered, there is nothing better than ordinary lime. It 
excels as a deodorizer. It freshens and sweetens the differ- 
ent parts of the milking machine. The ordinary limate 
purchased in paper sacks has proven handy and efficient. 
With this it is easy to make up a uniform and fresh solu- 
tion. A new solution should be made up not less than 



METHODS OF AIILKING 255 

once each week. In the summer time it should be made up 
twice each week. A two percent sohition by weight is suit- 
able. A solution stronger than this does no harm. Do not 
put any of the milking machine parts into this disinfecta^'t 
until they have been thoroughly freed from all milk 
particles and other organic matter. 

The pail .and other parts of the milking machine should 
be washed and steamed out, and kept as is recommended 
for other forms of milking utensils. 

The vacuum pipes should also be carefully looked after. 
These should be washed out as often as is necessary; usu- 
ally once a month is sufficient. If the milker allows the 
pail to get too full of milk, some of the milk and foam will 
be drawn into the pipes. Then the cleaning should be done 
frequently. Considerable moisture, however, evaporates 
from the milk and condenses in the vacuum pipes. In addi- 
tion, dust and foreign substances will accumulate. This 
will cause foulness in the vacuum pipes, even though no 
milk gained access to them. Wash out the vacuum pipes at 
least once a month, ^^llere no vacuum pipes are employed, 
the pump should be kept strictly sanitary. 

Watch closely for abnormal milk.— In connection with 
obtaining sanitary milk from a mechanical milker, the 
operator should carefully watch that none of the cows pro- 
duce abnormal milk. There are times when a cow's udder 
will give milk that is not normal and sanitary. If care is 
not exercised, such milk will gain entrance to the pail. If 
a cow's udder is gargety and swollen, take no chances ; milk 
the cow by hand. The appearance of stringy, lumpy, 
colored, abnormal milk cannot be blamed to the milkin-j 
machine. Such abnormalities are likely to occur with th? 
individual cows, whether milked by hand or machine. It is 
the duty of the operator to be on the watch for difficulties 
of this kind. 

Kinds of Milking Machines 

There are now many different types of milking machines 
manufactured, and on the market. Only the chief ones, the 



256 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



ones with which the author has had considerable experience, 
and the ones manufactured and sold in the United States, 
will be considered in this connection. 

Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy milker (B. L. K.). — The 

B. L. K. milker operates from a vacuum pipe line — usually 
installed on the stanchion frame. The vacuum is supplied 
by a two-cylinder vertical pump driven from a counter 
shaft. Two gages are used to indicate the amount of suc- 
tion. These are located at convenient places for reading 
and at some distance apart on the vacuum pipe line. One 
gage is of the mercury column type. The other one is a 
dial indicator. A vacuum of about 15 inches is used. The 
uniformity of the vacuum is regulated by a weighted valve. 
This valve can be set so that the vacuum does not go above 
the regulated amount. Connection cocks to the pipe line 
are fastened between each pair of cows. The pipe line is 
installed so that it has a drop of 50 inches in 50 linear feet. 
A drain cock is put in on the lowest point to allow drainage 
of moisture collecting in the pipes. 

The milker proper consists of a 28-quart pail of non- 
corrosive material. The pail has a partition in the center so 
that the milk from the two 
cows milked into the same 
pail may be kept separate. 
The pail cover contains the 
pulsating device and trap 
valve. The vacuum is trans- 
mitted from the stanchion 
cock through a y^-'mch heavy 
rubber tube to the trap valve. 
This latter prevents any sub- 
stance from the pipe line 
entering the pail. The pul- 
sating device controls the 

action of the suction upon the ^^^ gS - Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy 
cow's udder. It is so ar- milking machine. 




METHODS OF MILKING 



257 



ranged that the suction is applied intermittently. The 
speed of pulsation is controlled by a thumb screw, which 
governs the amount of vacuum entering the pulsating 
mechanism. The speed of this pulsator that is most efficient 
for milking the average cow is about sixty times per minute. 
The moving parts are enclosed in a metal dome and are thus 
protected from accidental injury. A single rubber tube, 
with a cluster of four teat cups at one end, leads from the 
pail to the cow. 

The teat cups are of the single compartment metal type, 
with a rubber disc mouthpiece, which serves to hold the 
cup in place and forms a close, yet not a binding connection 
with the teat. Several sizes of teat cups are furnished with 
the machine to fit different cows. 

The air that enters the milk tube to relieve the suction is 
filtered through absorbent cotton. 

The Calfway milker. — This machine operates with 
vacuum in a manner similar to the machines described 
above. A rotary pump is used instead of the vertical pump. 
This machine is operated with about 17 inches of vacuum. 

The vacuum pipe is also 
supplied with a safety 
valve and a vacuum dial 
indicator. 

The pulsator is lo- 
cated on the top of the 
pail cover. The average 
speed of the pulsator 
for this machine is 
about 65 pulsations per 
minute. This can be 
regulated to suit the 
cow. The teat cup is 
made of rubber. The 
outer wall of the teat 
cup is rigid on one side 

FIG. 86 — The Calfway milking machine. and flexible OU thc 




258 



larsen's farm dairying 



opposite. The inner wall, or sleeve, is a continuation of the 
outer. It is made of thinner material and is flexible 
throughout. The inner part of the teat cup, or sleeve, is 
open at the lower end to admit the passage of the milk. 
When suction is applied to the cups, the flexible side of the 
outer wall bends in and exerts a slight squeeze on the side 
of the teat. This is known as the collapsible teat cup. 
Several sizes of teat cups are manufactured to fit different 
cows. This machine is not now placed on the market. 

The Empire milking machine. — This milking machine 
operates from a vacuum pipe line in a manner similar to the 
two machines described above. The pipe line is supplied 
with a safety valve and a dial vacuum indicator. This 
machine is operated with about 15 inches of vacuum. Two 
cows are milked into one machine at one time. 

The Empire mechanical milker has the Universal teat 
cup — one size cup for all cows. This teat cup has two walls. 
The outer wall is made 
of rigid metal. The in- 
ner wall is made of thin, 
flexible rubber. The 
space between the two 
walls is air-tight, and is 
connected to the pul- 
sator by a separate tube. 
When the cup is placed 
on the teat and the suc- 
tion turned on, the rub- 
ber sleeve, or inner waM, 
collapses. This practi- 
cally shuts off the suc- 
tion on the side of the 
teat. By the mechanical 
action of the pulsator 

the suction is released fig. 87— The Empire milking machine. 

on the teat and applied to the space between the walls. The 
shifting of the vacuum in this manner continues, due to t':e 




METHODS OF MILKING 



259 



action of the pulsator. About 50 pulsations per minute is 
the most efficient speed. This varies some, according to the 
ease with which the cow milks. 

The Perfection milker. — Vacuum is supplied to this 
machine in a similar manner as described above. About 15 
inches of vacuum is applied. This machine milks two cows 
into one machine at a time. 

This machine uses the Universal teat cup, or the same 
size cup for all cows. The teat cups are of the double wall 

type. The inner wall is 
made of thin rubber, 
and the outer wall is 
made of metal. The 
space between these two 
walls is air-tight, except 
the tube inlets. Two 
rubber tubes lead from 
the vacuum pipe to th^ 
milker. One conveys 
the suction to the teat 
and returns the milk to 
the pail. The other 

FIG: S:—T.ie rcrfection milking machine. COUVCyS the SUCtioU tO 

the space between the outer and inner walls of the teat cup. 
When suction is applied to the teat, or center of the cup, the 
inner wall, or rubber, inflates inwardly. When the suction 
is applied to the space between the walls, the rubber inflates 
in the opposite direction and releases the teat. This 
alternate action is controlled by the pulsator. The force of 
the suction and the length of the squeeze stroke may be 
regulated independently by a set of needle valves ; that is, 
there is a dual control — one of the suction and one of the 
release. 

The Sharpies milker. — This mechanical milker employs 
a double system of pipes. A vacuum p^'pe carries a s'milar 
amount of vacuum as described with the above machines, 




260 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



15 inches, and also an air pressure pipe. The amount of 
air carried in the pressure pipe is seven pounds. 

The pulsator is located on the pipe line. It is a horizontal 
tilting cylinder. It is detachable and independent of any of 
the other parts of the milk- 
ing machine. This pul- 
sator also has a dual con- 
trol. The length of the 
release and suction is not 
necessarily the same. 
Fifty-five pulsations per 
minute is the most satis- 
factory speed with the 
average cow. With a cow 
that milks easily, the suc- 
tion and release should be 
of equal duration. With 
a hard milker, the force of 
the suction should be ap- 
plied longer than the time 
of release. The Sharpies has the Universal teat cup. It is 

of similar structure as 
are the other Universal 
cups. The inner wall 
consists of rubber and 
the outer is made of 
metal. This machine is 
of the single unit type; 
that is, 
milked 
a time. 

The Waterloo Boy 
milker. — Only one pipe 
line is used with this 
machine. About 15 
inches of vacuum is car- 

-The Waterloo Boy milking . - ;_, 

machine. ncd. 1 he SUCtlOU IS 




-The Sharpies 
machine. 



milking 




only one cow is 
into one pail at 



METHODS OF ^rILKING 



261 



applied directly to the teat in regular intermittent strokes — 
similar to the Empire and B. L. K. The speed of pulsation 
is about 55 strokes per minute and may be regulated by a 
thumb screw. There is no dual control of the pulsator. 
The suction and release are of equal duration. 

The teat cups are of the single compartment type, fitted 
with a rubber disc mouthpiece for retaining the cups in 
place. Various sizes of cups are used. Cups made of glass 
are manufactured for this machine. 

The Hinman milker. — This machine operates with direct 
intermittent suction. The suction is obtained directly from 
a small independent pump near the cows. Thsre is no 
vacuum pipe line in connection with this machine. Each 
machine in operation is independent of every other machine. 

The small pumps are so made 

that 15 inches of vacuum are 

applied 

stroke. 

cocks in 

may be 

inches. 




to the teat at every 
By opening the pit 
the pump, this vacuum 
lowered to about 12 
The speed of pulsation 
is determined for all machines 
by the speed of the driving 
shaft. This speed is constant 
and is from 45 to 50 strokes per 
minute. When the suction is 
lowered by the back stroke of 
the pump, the weight of the 
milk opens the gravity valve and 
allows the milk to drop into the 
pail. The valve chamber is situated in the pail cover. There 
is no vacuum in the pail. On this account, and on account 
of only one cow being milked into one machine, the pails 
are much lighter. 

The teat cups are of the single compartment, cone-shaped 
type, with a retaining rubber disc mouthpiece. Various 
sized cups are manufactured to fit teats of different cows. 



-The Hinman 
machine. 



milking 



262 



.arsen's farm dairying 



The Disbrow milker.— 

vacuum pipe line — similar 
only difference is that 
this machine milks only 
two teats at a time. It 
has a double acting 
pump. The milk is first 
drawn from two quarters 
of the cow and then from 
the other two quarters, 
and continues to alter- 
nate in this manner till 
the cow is milked. 

The Mehring milker. 
— This particular ma- 
chine is operated by foot 
power. It is intended for 
use in small herds only. 
The pumping device and 



-This machine works without a 
to the Hinman. Practically the 





FIG. 93 — The Universal milking machine. 



FIG. 92 — The DL brow milking machine. 

attachments are all con- 
tained within one unit, 
which is carried from 
one pair of cows to the 
other. It milks two 
cows at a time, and 
milks directly into a pail 
hung on the pump. The 
amount of vacuum may 
be varied according to 
the rapidity with which 
the operator works it. 

The Universal milk- 
er. — This is one of the 
latest milking machines. 
It is operated by vacuum 
similarly as the other 
pipe line machines, and 



IMETIIODS OF MILKIXr. 263 

about the same amount of vacuum is used, viz., 15 inches. 
This machine ahernates the suction from two quarters to 
the other two. The milk is drawn from two teats at a 
time. The attachment of the cups determines which two 
teats are milked together at a time. The release is simi- 
larly alternated. 



CHAPTER XIII 

HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK FOR 
DIRECT HUMAN FOOD 

Composition of normal milk. — 1 he average composition 
of cows' milk is as follows : 

Water 87.2 percent 

Fat 3.8 

Proteids : 3.") percent 

Casein 3.0 

Albumen 0.5 " 

Milk-sugar 4.8 " 

Ash 0.7 

Total 100 

The composition of cows' milk varies. Two factors that 
cause variation are the breed of the cow and the individu- 
ality of the cow. These have been discussed in chapters 
III and IV. 

A third factor is the length of time between milkings. 
The more nearly the time is equalized, the more uniform 
will be the quality of the milk. Intervals between milkings 
are not always of the same length. After the long intervals 
the cows give milk containing a smaller percentage of fat 
than after short intervals. The distention of the cow's 
udder, due to the large amount of milk, has a retarding in- 
fluence on the activity of the fat-secreting cells. It is also 
possible that when this distention reaches a certain point 
there is a reabsorption of the milk by the blood. Even if 
the intervals between milkings were exactly the same, the 
milk from the morning milking will usually contain a 
slightly smaller percentage of fat than that from the eve- 
ning milking. It appears that the greater activity in the 

264 



HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 265 

fresh air and sunshiiie of the cow during the day has some 
influence on making the milk a trifle richer. 

Fourth, the manner of milking affects the richness. It is 
a well-known fact that the milk drawn at the different milk- 
ing stages does not have the same composition. The very 
first milk contains less than one percent of butter fat. The 
very last milk may contain 10 and even 12 percent of butter 
fat. The milk ranges between these two extremes in com- 
position. It can, therefore, readily be seen that the milker 
who can milk so as to obtain all of the strippings will get 
richer milk from the same cow than will one who either 
neglects to milk the cow properly or who causes such dis- 
comfort to the cow that she does not give down the milk 
completely. 

The Hegelund method of milking consists of gently lift- 
ing and massaging each quarter of the cow's udder in the 
latter stage of the milking process. The University of Wis- 
consin conducted some experiments and found that the 
quantity of fat was increased by 9.2 percent, and the amount 
of milk was increased by 4.5 percent. 

• With the average cow, the author does not believe it will 
pay to strip the cow too long, nor will it pay with average 
cows and under average conditions to manipulate the cow's 
udder according to the Hegelund method, in order to obtain 
this rather small increment in milk and butter fat. An 
experienced milker is able to get all of the milk by the 
ordinary process of milking. Some cows, however, require 
that the udder be manipulated in the latter stage of milking 
in order to obtain all of the milk. 

Fifth, the environment may affect the richness of the 
milk. Generally speaking, any unfavorable environment 
which will cause the cow to give a smaller flow of milk will 
usually cause the milk to be a trifle richer than usual. If 
these unfavorable conditions continue for any length of 
time, then the percentage of fat will go down to normal. It 
should be stated, however, that such occasional unfavorable 
surroundings do not cause the richness of the milk to in- 



266 larsen's farm dairying 

crease to such a proportion as to make up for the decrease 
in the milk flow. Cows exposed to a cold day, for instance, 
will lessen the flow of milk considerably, but the percentage 
of fat is usually increased a trifle. If the unfavorable 
environment continues, then the percent of fat will soon 
become normal. 

Sixth, the condition of the cow is another factor that 
afl^ects the richness of milk. A cow freshening in a fat con- 
dition nearly always gives richer milk shortly after freshen- 
ing than the same cow would if she was in poor condition or 
lacking in body flesh. When the surplus body fat has been 
milked off, the milk becomes normal in richness. 

So far as known now, no kind of normal food will cause 
the milk to increase in richness, if the cow has once reached 
the normal and natural condition. This is contrary to the 
general belief. Many practical farmers hold the idea that 
if a cow is well fed she will give richer milk than if she is 
poorly fed. A cow well fed will give a greater amount of 
butter fat than will one that is poorly fed. One must be 
careful to distinguish between percent of fat and amount of 
fat. A cow well fed will give a larger flow of milk of 
normal richness and therefore a larger amount of fat. 

Seventh, the stage of the lactation period affects the rich- 
ness of the milk. When a cow has given milk about two 
months, her milk is normal in respect to richness. If 
properly and normally fed, she will give a uniform flow for 
another two or three months. If she is then in calf, the 
flow of milk will gradually decrease until her resting period. 
This latter begins about six weeks before freshening. With 
this gradual decrease in the amount of milk there is a small 
and gradual increase in the percentage of butter fat in the 
milk. A cow giving milk testing normally 3}i percent 
butter fat will produce milk that tests four percent butter 
fat and even a little more towards the latter part of her 
milking period. 

Bacteria in milk. — No matter how much care is exer- 
cised in the production of the milk, some germs will gain 



HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 267 

access to it. The fore milk, or the first milk drawn, con- 
tains some bacteria while it is still in the cow's udder. They 
enter through the opening of the teat. These bacteria find 
ideal conditions for multiplying. The temperature is suit- 
able, there is plenty of feed and plenty of moisture. When 
certified milk is produced, this fore milk is drawn into a 
separate container and is not mixed with the remainder of 
the milk. By this method the bacterial count of the milk is 
materially reduced. Certified milk must not contain over 
10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

The remainder of the milk from a healthy cow's udder 
contains practically no germs. This milk, however, cannot 
be exposed to the air and handled in utensils under practical 
conditions without a large number of germs getting into it. 

It may be said that if these germs are of the harmless 
kind their presence in the milk makes very little difference, 
since germs are present everywhere anyhow and we con- 
sume them by the thousands in practically all other foods. 
From the standpoint of affecting a grown person's health, 
the presence of non-pathogenic germs in the milk is not of 
great importance. 

The presence of bacteria in the milk will, however, at the 
proper temperature cause the characteristics of the milk to 
be changed. At temperatures between 60 and 90 degrees 
bacteria multiply very rapidly in milk. They feed upon the 
sugar of milk and change it into lactic acid chiefly. This 
causes the milk to sour and coagulate. Some species of 
bacteria feed upon the protein of the milk and produce un- 
desirable taints and gases. Other species attack the butter 
fat and produce rancidity. These things the different 
species of bacteria accomplish in milk if they have both 
time and suitable temperature. 

Such fermentation in milk may be checked, first, by ex- 
cluding as many bacteria as possible from entering the milk 
by strictly sanitary methods ; secondly, by heating the milk 
to a temperature of 140 to 185 degrees ; and thirdly, by 
cooling milk below 50 degrees. Cooling the milk does not 



268 larsen's farm dairying 

kill bacteria. It merely renders them inactive. The method 
of handling the milk after it has been drawn will depend on 
how it is to be marketed. In the eastern part of the United 
States, and near the large cities, the milk produced is gener- 
ally sold to serve as a direct food for people. In the central 
West and Northwest the milk produced is chiefly used for 
the manufacture of butter, cheese, condensed milk and 
powdered milk. The by-products are fed chiefly to calves 
and pigs. 

The following outline illustrates the various common uses 
to which whole milk is put. 

I. Handling and marketing milk for direct human food. 

1. Wholesale in bulk. 

2. Delivered and retailed direct to consumer. 

3. Used in home. 

II. Making butter on the farm. 

1. Skimming cream of medium thickness. 

2. Keeping separator in good condition. 

3. Churning fresh cream. 

4. Washing the butter. 

5. Salting the butter. 

6. Working the butter. 

7. Packing and marketing butter. 

8. DifTlicult churning. 

III. Selling the cream to be made into butter in the 

factory. 

1. Local creamery. 

2. Cream buying station. 

3. Direct shipping to central plant. 

IV. Making cheese on the farm. 

1. Coagulating with rennet. 

2. Cutting the curd. 

3. Heating the curd. 

4. Preparing cheese for press. 

5. Pressing the cheese. 

6. Curing cheese. 

V. Manner of disposal affects income. 



HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 



269 



Direct Consumption 

Cooling and aerating the milk. — No matter for what 
purpose the milk is produced, it should be clean and whole- 



<*hCf 




FIG. 95 — An elevator 

and cooling we'.l. 

(J. H. Frandsen, Neb. 

Exp. Sta.) 



FIG. 94 — Official square cooling tank. 
(Neb. Sta. circular No. 3.) 

some in every respect. When the milk 
is for direct use, whether for the home, 
or for the retailer, or for the customers 
direct, the milk should be cooled and 
aerated at once after it has been milked. 
The sooner it is cooled after milking, the better, and the 
lower the temperature to which it is cooled without freezing, 
the better. The animal heat should not be permitted to re- 
main in the milk any length of time. A piece of meat which 
has been covered and has not had the animal heat taken out 
shortly after the butchering will have an objectionable 
flavor. A can of milk covered and left warm will have a 
smothered flavor, to which most milk consumers object. 

It is important that the milk should be cooled to below 50 
degrees. On the average dairy farm, water alone will not 



270 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



cool milk lower than to about this temperature. When ice 
or mechanical refrigeration is obtainable, the milk should 




FIG. 96 — The manufacture of sanitary ice in cans. This method is useful 
onV in a cold winter climate. (So. Dak. Sta.) 

be cooled to 40 degrees. When the milk is to be sold for 
direct use, it should be cooled by running over a cooler and 
aerator. Special cooling apparatuses are now on the market. 




FIG. 97- 



-A covered ice pit. It is an inexpensive way of keeping 
ice on the farm. 



The ice-cold water or brine circulates on the inside of the 
cooler and the milk flows over the cold surface of the cooler 
in a thin sheet. The cooling and aerating should be done in 



HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 



271 



a pure and well-ventilated atmosphere, 
are properly done, many of the taints, 



If these processes 
if any are in the 
milk, will be elim- 
inated and the 
temperature low- 
ered to such an 
extent as to 
check the growth 
of the bacteria ; 
and if the milk is 
cooled to a tem-. 
perature as low 
as 40 degrees the 
g r o w t h of all 
germs is practi- 
cally stopped. 

If the amount 
of milk produced 
is small, and the 
farmer does not 
have facilities for 
such a method of 
cooling, the cans 
of milk may be placed in cold water as soon as possible after 
milking. A stream of cold water should be pumped through 
the tank and the milk cooled thoroughly. The milk should 
be kept at this low temperature until it reaches its 
destination. 

This keeping of milk in cold water should be practiced in 
winter as well as in the summer. During the winter, the 
cans of. milk should be submerged in the water to such an 
extent that the level of the water in the cooling tank is above 
the level of the milk inside of the can. This will prevent 
the milk from freezing. 

When the dairyman is ready to deliver the milk in the 
summer he should cover the outside of the can with a wet 




FIG. 



-A method of cooling and aerating milk. 
(U. S. Dairy Division.) 



272 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



blanket and leave it in that condition while en route. If the 
cans of milk are to be shipped by train, special can covers 
are now obtainable which tend to keep the milk from beings 
warmed too rapidly. In the winter time a dry blanket 
should be put around the can while en route to prevent the 
milk from freezing. 




FIG. 99 — After returning from the milk route on a cold morning. 



Milk produced, handled, and kept in this manner will be 
in good condition for home use, for delivering to the re- 
tailer, and for being bottled and delivered directly to the 
consumer. 

If the milk is to be manufactured into factory cheese, in'o 
condensed milk, or into powdered milk, without beinj 
skimmed or modified in any way, then the above discussion 
of handling milk also applies. 



CHAPTER XIV 

HANDLING MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED 
INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS ON THE FARM 

Making Butter on the Farm 

Skim cream of medium richness. — If the milk is to be 
manufactured into butter, the milk cannot be handled in the 
same manner as where it is intended for direct use. There 
is a tendency at the present time to not manufacture the 
milk into any dairy products on the farm, and an increased 
tendency towards selling the milk or the cream in the 
unchanged form. 

However, there is still much farm butter manufactured, 
and it is highly important that this butter should be of the 
very best quality. 

When the milk is to be made into butter, it should be 
shimmed at once after milking, while the milk is still warm. 
Trom the standpoint of the flavor of butter, richness of 
cream is not an important factor. From, the standpoint of 
vorkmxanship of butter, it is of considerable importance. 
Cream may be so rich and so thick and viscous that it will 
not agitate in the churn without warming to such a tempera- 
ture that the churned butter will be too soft, and thus con- 
tain too much of the buttermilk constituents. Too thin 
cream should also be discouraged. When very thin, the 
butter will not gather on churning. If it does not gather, 
there is likely to be a big loss of butter fat in the butter. 
The butter granules will "break" in small shot-like forms. 

During the summer, cream should contain from 35 to 40 
percent of butter fat. During the winter, the proper rich- 
ness is between 30 and 35 percent of butter fat. 

Practicallv everv cream separator has a device on the 

273 



274 LARSEN^S FARM DAIRYING 

bowl which serves as a regulator of the richness and which 
influences the relative amount of cream and skim milk 
discharged from the separator. In most cases this device 
takes the form of a cream screw. Turning it towards the 
center of the separator bowl will make the cream richer. 
Turning it away from the center will make the cream less 




FIG. 100 — Shows butter lost in skim milk from one cow by diflFerent methods 
of skimming, (Purdue Exp. Sta.) 

rich. In a few machines this device takes the form of a 
skim milk screw. The method of regulating the richness 
of cream then works just in the opposite direction. When 
richer cream is desired, then the milk screw is turned so as 
to bring the skim milk outlet nearer to the surface of the 
bowl. If thinner and therefore relatively more cream is 
wanted, then the screw is turned in, or nearer the center of 
the bowl. 

The amount of whole milk which runs through the 
separator affects the richness and relative amount of cream 
and skim milk. The greater the inflow of whole milk to 
the separator the thinner cream will be obtained. If the 
flow is diminished, then richer cream and relatively less of 
it is obtained. This is due principally to the fact that the 
skim milk outlet has a limited capacity. If the inlet is in- 
creased, it can readily be seen that the increased discharge 
must take place through the cream outlet. 

The speed of the separator is an additional factor which 



MILK TO RE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 275 



influences the richness of the cream and, therefore, also the 
relative amount of cream and skim milk. The slower the 
bowl revolves, the smaller the proportionate amount of 
skim milk discharged, and consequently if the inlet is con- 
stant, more and thinner cream will be the result. In this 

connection i t 
should be stated 
that the efifl- 
ciency of skim- 
ming depends 
to a large ex- 
tent upon the 
speed, and if 
attempts are 
made to de- 
crease the per- 
centage of fat 
and increase the 
amount of 
cream by low- 
ering the speed, 
too much fat 
will be left in 
the skim milk. The thoroughness of skimming depends 
very much on the speed. Every separator has a speed at 
which it works best. This speed varies with different 
separators. It is important that the speed of the cream 
separator be uniform both from the standpoint of getting 
thorough skimming and also from the standpoint of getting 
a uniform richness of cream. 

Electric or gasoline power is more conducive to uniform 
speed of the separator than is hand power. There is an in- 
creasing tendency to use gasoline and electric power for 
running the separator. 

The temperature of milk slightly affects the richness of 
cream. When milk is first drawn, the temperature is about 




FIG. 



101 — An inexpensive method of cooling and 
aerating milk. (U. S. Dairy Division.) 



276 larsen's farm dairying 

100 degrees Fahrenheit. At this temperature it is more 
fluid and a trifle more of it will run through the separator in 
a given time than when it becomes colder. This slightly 
lowers the percent of fat in the cream. The cream outlet of 
some separators will clog when the temperature reaches 
about 50 degrees. When this point is reached, then the per- 
cent of fat in the cream is slightly increased. It is impor- 
tant that the milk be skimmed at once after milking, while 
the milk is warm, or that it be warmed to about 100 degrees 
before it is skimmed. 

The percent of fat in the milk affects the richness of the 
cream skimmed. On the average farm, this one factor is 
not likely to vary much from day to day if the cream is 
always from the same herd and skimmed in the same 
separator. Milk from the same herd will be almost of uni- 
form richness from day to day. There will, however, be 
some difference in the richness of the milk from one season 
to another, even though the milk comes from the same herd. 
The percent of fat in the cream is in direct proportion to the 
fat in the milk separated.* For instance, the milk may test 
four percent of fat and the resulting cream contain 30 per- 
cent of fat ; but if the percent of fat in the milk was in- 
creased to five percent, then the percent of fat in the cream 
from the same separator would be increased to 37 percent 
(4:5 : : 30 : X = 37+ percent) . 

The richness of the cream from a farm separator also 
depends on the amount of flush water used. The last act in 
skimming is usually to flush the bowl with a dipperful of 
clean water. The chances are that this amount of flush 
water is uniform, whether 100 pounds of milk are skimmed 
or whether 200 pounds of milk are skimmed. The effect of 
this flush water on the richness of the cream will be more 
marked from one season to the other than it will from day 
to day. The amount of cream skimmed is fairly uniform 
from day to day, but it usually varies more from one season 
to the other. 

* Bulletin No. 94, Missouri station. 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 277 



There is much discussion over the test of the cream. It 
is important that all producers understand that cream varies 
from day to day. due to the above-mentioned factors. 

Keep separator in good condition.— Generally speaking, 
too little importance is attached to the efficiency of the farm 
separator. At times cream separators are not put on a level 
and solid foundation. This is very important. 

Secondly, cream separators are not always kept clean and 
well oiled. The bowd bearings in time will become gummed 



1 at^^^^^^^BfiflRB^ &gf^ i^^^^^^^B 


.^ 




W'^ ^^^^^^^^m^^^' ■ -,»—...-.. «»aipg|||^ia 






1 



FTG. 102 — A home sterilizer. (U. S. Dairy Division.) 

up. This will cause the cream separator to run heavily and 
make the bowl w^obble. By flushing the bearings at least 
once a week with kerosene, this gum will be removed. The 
separator should be well oiled daily, both previous to and 
during the separation. Do not use too heavy lubricating oil. 
The separator must be kept scrupulously clean. It is a 
well-known fact that at the close of the skimming process 
there is always a thick, heavy substance adhering to the 
bowl wall. In addition there will be some slush left in the 



278 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



bowl. If this is not removed, it may become unevenly dis- 
tributed in the bowl, and therefore cause the bowl to run 
unevenly when it gets up to speed. A very small un- 
balancing of the bowl when standing still will greatly un- 
balance the bowl when full speed is reached. The smooth 
running of a cream separator is one of the first essentia^-S. 
If a machine runs roughly, there will not be good separatioi, 
and it is more or less dangerous to run it. The bowl itself 
is likely to jump out or burst. The causes for unsteadiness 
in running are many. Usually it is due to the machine not 
standing level, to dents on any parts of the bowl, to using 
dirty and worn out bearings, and to improper balancing of 
the internal contriv- 
ances of the bowl, to 
lack of cleanliness of 
the bowl, or to a bent or 
sprung spindle. 

Churn fresh cream. — 
As soon as the cream 
has been separated, cool 
to as low a temperature 
as is possible without 
freezing. The cooling 
of cream is done in 
much the same way as 
is the cooling of milk 
already described. 

Never mix warm and 
cold cream. Before the 
fresh, warm cream is 
mixed with the cool 
cream it should be thor- 
oughly cooled. Old cream is sure to have an old, stale 
flavor. In spite of the cleanliness with which it has been 
produced, and the coldness in which it has been kept, some 
germs will develop in the cream and cause abnormal flavors. 




FIG. 10 ; A sanitary hand ehurn mad3 
from glazed earthenware. 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 279 



The fresher the cream is, the better the chances for a good- 
flavored cream from which to churn butter. The dairy farm 
that has the largest number of cows or the greatest amount 
of cream usually has the best cream and makes the best 
butter. This is due chiefly to the fact that the churning is 
done oftener. Cream should be churned at least twice a 
week to make the best butter. 

There are some who believe that cream must be sour 
before it will churn. Sour cream is not necessary. This 

idea of sour cream has 
probably come from 
creameries. In butter 
factories, the cream is 
usually pasteurized and 
ripened with a good 
starter before it is 
churned. This is done 
with a view to control- 
ling the kind of fermen- 
tation in the cream. On 
the farm it is more 
difficult thus to control 
the fermentation. For 
the average small dairy 
farmer it is not prac- 
ticable to use starters 
and ripen cream, as is 
done in the creameries. 
Under the average farm 
conditions it is best to 




FIG. 104 — A small combined farm churn. 



control the germs in the cream by exclusion, by retarding 
the growth by cooling, and by churning before the cream 
gets old. 

Churning temperature.— When the cream is ready to 
churn, gradually increase the temperature of the cream to 
the point of churning. This churning temperature varies 



280 

in different localities and according to local conditions. The 
warmer the cream, up to a certain limit, the quicker it will 
churn. The cooler the cream, the longer the time required 
for churning. The length of time required for churning 
should be between 30 minutes and an hour. If the cream is 
too warm, and it churns too quickly, the butter will "break" 
in soft masses. When it is in this condition it is impossible 
to wash out the buttermilk constituents. This is the chief 
trouble with farm butter. Most farm butter is churned at 
too high a temperature. Such butter also contains too much 
water. According to the law, butter cannot contain more 
than 16 percent of water. The average composition of 
butter is about as follows : 

Fat 84 percent 

Water 13 

Salt 2 

Curd 1 

Total 100 

During the winter months the churning temperature is 
about 60 degrees. During the summer months the churn- 
ing temperature is about 55 degrees. The churning tempera- 
ture depends on the solidity of the butter fat at a given 
temperature. This hardness and softness of the butter fat 
varies according to the kind of feed, the stage in the lacta- 
tion period, the breed, and the individuality of the animal.* 
These details will not be considered in this connection. The 
lower the temperature at which the churning can be done, 
the more complete it will be, or the less butter fat there 
will be left in the buttermilk. 

Coloring the butter. — In order to maintain uniform 
color of the butter during the different seasons of the year, 
some artificial color should be added at certain times. When 
the cows are first put on grass no color should be added 
before churning. The "June" color is the standard for 

* "Principles and Practice of Buttermaking," by McKay and 
Larsen. 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 281 

butter. During the winter, when the cows are on dry feed, 
the most color is needed. The amount of color varies then 
with the time of the year and with the strength of the color. 
The dairy farmer should use his own judgment in this 
respect. It is not desirable that butter should be colored so 
much that it is almost red. Usually the amount of color 
varies from a drop to half a teaspoonful to each gallon of 
cream containing 35 percent of butter fat. The color of 
the butter must be uniform throughout, and every lot 
churned should have the same color. 




FIGk 105—1. Buttermilk strainer. 2. Butter ladle. 3. Butter tamper. 
4. Butter pound printer. 

Washing the butter. — During the last part of the churn- 
ing period the operator should carefully watch the progress 
of the gathering of the butter. The cream should be 
churned sufficiently long to obtain a complete churning. If 
the churn is stopped too soon, too much butter fat will re- 
main in the buttermilk. On the other hand, if the churning 
is carried too far, the butter granules will gather into 
lumps, which is also undesirable. Stop the churn when th'^ 
butter granules are still separate and of the size of corn 
kernels. At this stage the butter granules cover the whole 
surface of the buttermilk and are of a clear, bright color. 

When this stage is reached, then drain the buttermilk 
away through the drainhole of the churn. The buttermilk 
should be strained through a sieve. Allow the butter to 



282 larsen's farm dairying 

drain for about five minutes. Then rinse the inside of the 
churn and the butter with a dipperful or two of clean cold 
water and allow it to drain. 

Put the drain plug into the churn and add about three- 
fourths as much wash water as there was cream in the 
churn. The wash water should be pure and it should be 
about the same temperature as is the buttermilk. If only a 
small amount of wash water is used, the butter particles 
tend to gather and the buttermilk is not washed away. There 
should be enough wash water added to float the butter in 
the churn. 

The temperature of the wash water may be varied some 
to control the degree of firmness in the butter. If the butter 
is a little soft, the temperature of the wash water may be 
several degrees lower than that of the buttermilk. On the 
other hand, if the butter is a little too firm, the temperature 
of the wash water may be increased a few degrees higher 
than that of the buttermilk. The range of variation should 
not be more than about five degrees. Sudden and extreme 
variations in the temperature of the wash water from that 
of the butter cause salvy butter. 

After the proper amount of wash water has been added, 
then rotate the churn about a half dozen revolutions- Then 
drain this water away and add a second portion of clean 
wash water. Rotate the churn another half dozen revolu- 
tions and drain this second set of w^ash water away. 

If the buttermilk is not properly removed, the butter will 
become mottled and streaky after salting, and it is also 
likely to become rancid in a short time. 

Salting butter. — In order to obtain uniform salting, the 
moisture should be well drained from the butter. The 
butter should be salted while still in the churn. The amount 
of salt to add depends upon the consumer. At any rate 
there should not be more added than will completely dis- 
solve in the butter. The amount of salt to add will vary 
from one-fourth of an ounce to one ounce per pound of 
btitter. If the butter has been reasonably well drained be- 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 283 

fore the salt is added, one-half an ounce per pound of hutter 
is about the right amount to add. The proper amount of 
salt must be regulated by the person who does the churnin-^ 
and who understands the local conditions. The salt used 
must be of the best quality of butter salt. Salt that has been 
allowed to harden will not easily dissolve in the butter. 
Such salt, too much salt, and lack of proper distribution 
will cause ''gritty" butter. Most consumers object to this 
condition. 

When the proper amount of salt has been weighed out, 
distribute it over the surface of the butter in the churn. 
Then put on the cover and slowly rotate the churn. If the 
butter has been properly handled up to this stage, the flaky 
butter granules will still be partially separated, so that when 
the churn is rotated the salt will mix with the butter 
particles. Slow rotation of the churn will also cause the 
butter to gather. In that way the salt is first mixed with 
the butter, and it is properly incorporated with the butter 
particles. 

Working the butter.— The butter should be carefully 
worked ; first, to gather the butter ; second, to express the 
excess of brine ; and third, to distribute uniformly the brine 
and salt in the butter. This latter point is quite important. 
If there is an excess of undissolved salt in some parts of 
the butter, it is likely to be mottled. If there is more brine 
in one part of the butter than in the other, the butter will 
be streaky. Mottled butter and streaky butter are unsightly 
and unfit for good markets. 

Small dairy farm churns are now made in which butter 
can be worked. These combined churns are advantageous 
in several ways. They are handy and save time. The but- 
ter is not exposed to room temperature. This is a special 
advantage during hot weather. These combined churns are 
also more sanitary. Flies and dust of the room can easily 
be excluded from the churn. Where the butter has to be 
taken out in the room on an open butterworker, there is 
greater danger of getting the butter contaminated. 



284 larsen's farm dairying 

Where dairy butter is made regularly, the small hand 
churns are generally used. Such churns do not permit of 
working the butter within the churn. After the salt has 
been mixed with the butter it should be removed to a small 
table butterworker. A hand lever worker serves the 
purpose. Butter should never be handled directly with the 
hands. Small ladles are made with which to handle the 
butter, and can be purchased cheaply. 

Packing and marketing butter. — It is important that 
butter be put in neat, attractive packages. Butter should 



^' I^^B hI^B^ m^m 



FIG. 106 — 1. Pound print of butter. 2. Five-pound box made of wood. 

3. Five-pound box made of paraffined paper. 4. Five-pound container made 

of earthenware. 

not be rolled up in rags. Such wrapping is not sanitary. 
The butter is exposed to air and therefore will not keep 
well, and such butter does not appeal to the best class of 
butter consumers. The glazed earthen jar furnishes the 
best receptacle for small lots of farm butter. This jar is 
easy to clean and the butter keeps well in it. The chief 
objections that could be raised to it are that it is heavy and 
breaks easily. 

There are now on the market small paraffined paper 
boxes that are very desirable for holding butter. These 
paper boxes are single containers. When a five-pound box 
of butter is sold, the box is not returned, while the glazed 
earthen jars are returnable. 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 285 

When butter is made in large quantities on the farm, and 
it is to be transported by rail, a small wooden tub is probably 
best for packing. Wooden tubs should not be used unless 
they are well cleaned and then soaked over night in strong 
brine. Such tubs should also be lined with parchment paper 
before butter is packed in them. Unless butter is made on 
a large scale, wooden tubs should not be used. The glazed 
earthen jars, or the single container paraffined paper boxes 
are made in different sizes to suit the needs of the consumer 
and the convenience of the dairy farmer. 

The butter should be firmly tamped into the jar. Fill the 
jars a little more than full, and with a wet, clean cord cut 
the top of the butter off even with the edge of the jar. 
When this excess of butter has been removed, the surface is 
smooth and level. Then cover the surface with a circular, 
wdiich is a piece of parchment paper that exactly fits the top 
of the jar. On the top of the circular scatter a little salt. 
Then sprinkle this with water, and with the flat palm of the 
hand spread the brine evenly on the surface. In addition, a 
•piece of paper is put on top of the jar and tied with a cord, 
and the edges are neatly trimmed off with a pair of scissors. 
The jar of butter is now ready for the market. 

Difficult churning. — There are a number of factors 
which affect the churning qualities of the cream. Most 
difficult churnings are due to one or more of these. 

First, if the temperature of the cream is too low, the fat 
globules are so firm that they do not adhere to form butter 
on being agitated. As has been previously mentioned, the 
cream should be properly tempered. Too cold and too rich 
cream will incorporate air and hold it. This causes the 
cream to foam and adhere to the side of the churn without 
agitating. 

Second, if the cream is very thin, it churns with difficulty. 
Cream for buttermaking should contain at least 20 percent 
of butter fat. 

Third, the fullness of the churn affects the amount of 
agitation of the cream by churning. If there is too much 



286 larsen's farm dairying 

cream in the churn, there is no room for the cream to agi- 
tate. If there is just a small amount of cream in the churn, 
then most of it will adhere to the sides of the churn. The 
churn should be from one-half to three-fourths full of 
cream. 

Fourth, a too slow or too fast speed of the churn may 
cause trouble. The former allows the cream to flow around 
the sides of the churn without agitating. The latter gener- 
ates centrifugal force so that the cream does not agitate 
at all. 

Fifth, the acidity, or degree of sourness of the cream, is 
an important factor. Sweet cream is more viscous than is 
sour cream, and therefore does not churn so easily. How- 
ever, if the temperature and richness of the cream are right, 
no difficult churning will result from sweet cream. 

Sixth, the fat globules in the -milk from difl^erent 
breeds are not of the same size. The fat globules in 
Jersey and Guernsey milk are large, while the fat globules 
in the Holstein milk are small. When other conditions are 
alike, the latter cream churns with more difficulty. The 
size of the fat globules is also affected by the period of 
lactation. In the early part of the milking period the fat 
globules are larger than in the latter part of the lactation 
period. 

There are times of tiie year when practically all of the 
cows in a herd are almost dry. At such a time difficult 
churning is likely to occur. 

Seventh, certain feeds, such as grass, silage, and other 
succulent feeds, tend to produce a softer butter, while dry 
f^eds, exclusively, tend to produce butter fat of greater 
firmness. This is one reason why the churning temperature 
is usually higher in the winter than it is during the summer. 
Cottonseed meal is known definitely to produce harder 
butter. 

Eighth, occasionally difficult churning is due to certain 
abnormal germs that gain access to the cream. When this 
is the cause, then the cream assumes a soapy consistency. 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 2S7 

This is the worst form of difficult churning to overcome. 
Scrupulous cleanliness, and disinfection of the stable, the 
utensils, and all surroundings are the only practical 
remedies. 

Cream to Be Made Into Butter at Factory 

To make the butter on the farm involves considerable 
labor. Under average farm conditions it is also difficult to 
obtain a uniform high quality of butter. If there are very 
many dairy farmers in one community making farm butter, 
there will not be a local market for it. These different small 
lots of farm butters cannot be shipped and sold advan- 
tageously. To overcome these difficulties the different dairy 
farmers take their milk or cream to a central place to be 
churned into butter. 

The skimming and handling of the cream discussed under 
the heading ^'Making Butter on the Farm" applies also to 
cream to be sent to the factory. 

Cold, fresh, sweet and pure cream are important quali- 
ties, no matter where the cream is made into butter. 

Local creamery. — The local creamery may be privately 
owned or it may be owned by the dairy farmers co-opera- 
tively. It furnishes an excellent market for cream. A local 
creamery, to be real successful, should make not less than 
about 100,000 pounds of butter per year. In communities 
where farmers will work together, a co-operative creamery 
is the most ideal form. It places the churn close to the cow. 
The farmers do business with themselves. They receive all 
the money there is in the cream, minus the cost of manufac- 
ture, and there is no danger of loss through financial irre- 
sponsibility. 

The good and well-managed co-operative creameries have 
demonstrated that they can pay a very high average price 
for butter fat. 

Through the local creamery organization the farmers 
may co-operate in many other ways, such as cow testing 



288 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 




MILK TO BE xMANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 289 

associations, bull associations, purchase and exchange of 
feeds, salt, coal, stock and other commodities. 

A prosperous farmers' co-operative creamery is an asset 
to any community. 

Cream buying station. — The cream buying station has 
become very common in the central West. This method of 




FIG. 108 — The finir.hod article. The most concentrated and valuable food 

known. 

handling cream is not the most economic. If one agent 
handled all of the cream in a community, the cost of 
handling the cream and of setting a price on it could be 
reduced. Instead, the cream business usually is split up 
among several buyers. 

Including the commission, drayage, rental, acid, other 
supplies and equipment, it costs about 3 to 4 cents per pound 
of butter fat to thus buy and concentrate the cream. 

Besides, the cream is often held at the cream station. 
When purchased, the cream may be several days old. The 
cream buyer is not often equipped with cooling facilities. 



290 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Every hour such cream is kept causes it to deteriorate. 
From some of the places, cream can be shipped only once 
each day. 

These cream buyers test the cream as soon as delivered 
and pay cash for the butter fat. This is an inducement to 
se'l for a little less price per pound of butter fat. 




FIG. 109 — A cream buying station. 

In some localities farmers have their own co-operative 
cream buying station. The cream from all of the farmers 
is then sold to the creamery that bids the highest price. 

Direct shipment of cream. — By this system, the business 
between the central creamery and the dairy farmer is car- 
ried on by mail. The creamery usually sends out quotations 
on butter fat, net at the factory. The dairy farmer cm 
then decide for himself whether he will ship the cream 
direct to the factory, or whether he will sell it to the local 
cream buyer. If the cream is shipped, the central creamery 
weighs and tests the cream, and then returns the empty can, 
and the check is sent by mail. 

Some dairy farmers would rather see the cream weighed 
and tested. This is undoubtedly the chief reason whv the 
direct shipping has not taken the place of the cream buying 



MILK TO r:E MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 291 

Station. Theoretically, the direct shipper should be abla to 
obtain more for the cream than does the one who sells to 
the buying station. 



Making Cheese on the Farm 

For cheese making it is extremely important that the 
milk be produced under the most sanitary conditions, and 
that it be cooled as low as possible without freezing at once 




JErisj-'fs 




«yJ^^*Wf|f**' 



.-^-^S^^^^-f ^*/%* A ■ 



FIG. 110 — A fei-ryboat carrying much cream from one side of M;s.:ouri 

river. 

after it is milked. These methods have been described in a 
previous chapter. 

It is also important that the milk be made into cheese at 
least once each day. It is best if the cheese can be made at 
once after milking. 

Coagulate milk v^ith rennet. — A regular cheese vat, 
having a water jacket for heating and cooling the milk, is 
the best container of the milk. Such a vat is not always 
obtainable on the farm. A clean, sanitary tub, or even a 
wash boiler, may be used. The milk should all be strained 
through two thicknesses of cheesecloth as it is poured into 
the cheese tub. 



292 



LARSEN S FARM DAIRYING 



Then bring the whole amount of milk to a temperature 
of 85 degrees. If the milk is heated on a stove, great care 




FIG. Ill A larjje central creamery. 

should be taken not to heat too rapidly, nor to too high a 
temperature. A good way is to warm just a small amount 
and then mix it 
with the whole. 
No part of the 
milk should be 
heated to a 
higher tempera- 
ture than 120 
degrees. A higher 
temperature than 
this will interfere 
with the proper 
curdling of the 
milk. If the milk 
from a whole day 
IS made into 
cheese, it is suffi- 
ciently ripe to "set" as soon as the proper temperature 
has been obtained. On the other hand, if the milk is made 




FIG. 112 



-A vat in which the milk for cheese can be 
tempered to the proper degree. 



u 



ILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 293 



into cheese shortly after milking, the milk should stand not 
less than an hour at 86 degrees F. to ripen before the rennet 
is added. In case this cannot be done, a small amount of good 
sour milk, buttermilk, or whey, may be mixed with the milk 
from which the cheese is to be made. Do not add more 

than two percent, 
or more than two 
pounds, of the good 
sour milk to each 
100 pounds of 
cheese milk. 

The next step is 
to add the color. 
Butter color will not 
do. It must be 
cheese color. The 
amount to add 
varies with the 
strength of the color 
and with the de- 
mands of the mar- 
ket. The cheese should not be red, nor should it be white. 
A medium yellow color is liked by most cheese consumers. 
Add from one-half to one teaspoonful (1-16 to Js ounce) to 
each 100 pounds of milk, and mix thoroughly. 

The amount of rennet to add also varies with many con- 
ditions, the chief of which are the acidity of the milk, the 
strength of the rennet, and the temperature of the milk. 
The amount of rennet added should be such that the milk 
curdles in from 20 to 30 minutes. This amount will be 
about one ounce to 250 pounds of milk. 

When the rennet has been measured out, it should be 
mixed with about 40 times the amount of cold water. When 
ready to add the diluted rennet, stir the milk. This is done 
so that the rennet will be completely mixed before it has a 
chance to act on any one part of the milk. Continue to stir 



fe'-'^^^^^l 


o 

i 

I 



FIG. 113 — 1. Shot-gun can. 2. Milk and cream 

stirrer. 3. Dairy thermometer. 4. Graduate for 

measuring rennet and color. 



294 larsen's farm dairying 

the milk for about two minutes. Do not disturb the milk 
while it is coagulating. 

Cutting the curd. — The curd should not be cut till it is 
reasonably solid. To test when it is ready, insert the fore 
finger into the curdled milk at an angle of 45 degrees, then 
slowly lift the finger straight up. If the curd splits 
smoothly over the finger, it is ready to cut ; while if it breaks 
into small pieces and is ragged, it is too soft to cut. 

Usually the time required for the curd to set, from the 
time the rennet is added, is from three-fourths to one hour. 
About 20 minutes is required for the milk to curdle. Fully 
as much time will be required for the curd to set before it 
is ready to cut. 

Special cheese knives are made for cutting the curd into 
small squares. For making cheese on a small scale on the 
farm these are not necessary. A homemade, long-bladed 
wooden knife may be used. The curd should be cut length- 
wise and crosswise into small cubes. A wire toaster is a 
convenient tool for completing the cutting of the curd into 
cubes not over half an inch in diameter. The particles 
should be as uniform in size as is possible in order to obtain 
an even "cook," or heating. 

Heating the curd. — The curd is gradually heated to expel 
the moisture and to make the curd firm. At this stage there 
will be considerable whey. Dip some out and heat it to a 
temperature of 135 degrees. Then gradually pour it back 
and mix it very gently with the contents of the vat. Do not 
allow the curd to mat. Keep the particles separate by gentle 
stirring. If roughly handled, while the curd particles are 
soft, much of the fat will be lost in the whey. 

Pour in only enough hot whey to raise the temperature 
of the whole three or four degrees, then gently stir for five 
minutes. Add hot whey again to increase the temperature 
three or four degrees more, and stir five minutes. Continue 
this until the temperature has reached about 100 degrees. 
It will thus require about 30 to 40 minutes to bring the 
temperature from 86 to 100 degrees. Allow the curd to 



MILK TO BE MAXUFACTURED IN^TO DAIRY PRODUCTS 295 

remain at this temperature till it is "cooked'* through. 
When this is done, the curd is so hard that when a handful 
of it is squeezed, and when the grip again is released, the 
curd particles will not stick together. 

After the curd has reached this stage, allow it to remain 
in the whey for 30 to 45 minutes more. This is done to 
develop acid in the curd. In the manufacture of cheddar 
cheese in the factory, the Avhey is drawn and the curd is 
piled to develop the proper amount of acid. On the farm 
this method is hardly practicable. There is a slight danger 
of overcooking the curd by the modified method. 

The curd thus left in the whey should be closely watched 
so that it does not get too much acid, A curd that has 
developed too much acid produces a dry cheese, lacking in 
flavor. A cheese that contains too little acid is likely to 
develop gas when put into the curing room. The curd may 
be tested occasionally on a piece of hot iron. When it 
strings about half an inch, then draw the whey from the 
curd. 

While the curd is developing acid in the whey, it must not 
be allowed to mat. Stir it just enough to keep it from 
matting. 

When the proper amount of acid has been developed, 
then drain off the whey. The curd should be gently stirred 
to aid in getting the whey effectively drained away from it. 

Preparing the cheese for the press. — When the curd is 
ripened as mentioned above, "the milling process," or sub- 
dividing the curd is done away with. The curd is ready for 
the salting as soon as it has been well stirred and the whey 
is thoroughly drained off. 

About one pound of salt should be added to the curd for 
each 300 pounds of milk used. The amount of salt the 
maker should regulate according to the quality of cheese he 
wishes to make. Too much salt makes the cheese too dry 
and retards the curing. Too little salt causes the cheese to 
ripen too fast. The salt should be thoroughly mixed with 
the curd to secure uniform distribution. 



296 



larsen's farm dairying 



1 


■H 


HH 


^5B 


11 , 


1 



FIG. 114 — A cheese hoop for making "Youn^ 
America" cheese. 



If cheese is regularly made on the farm, special hoops 
should be purchased. The Young America hoop is probably 
of most suitable size for farm cheeses. These hoops make 
a cheese that is 7 
inches in diameter. 
The height is vari- 
able. The most suit- 
able weight to make 
a Young America 
cheese is about 10 
pounds. If a cheese 
is made only now 
and then, a hoop 
may be made from 
a small tin pail hav- 
ing straight sides and a diameter of about 7 to 8 inches. 
There is no objection to a hoop of greater diameter. If 
such a hoop is used, holes should be made in the end to 
permit draining of the whey during pressing. 

The hoops should first be thoroughly cleaned. Then place 
some cheesecloth within the hoop. Make the folds as 
smooth as possible. The curd is then placed in the hoop. 
Special hoop liners, or bandages, and circles shou!d be pur- 
chased if the hoops of regular sizes are used. 

Care should be taken to keep the curd warm. Do not 
expose it too much to the cold air. Cold curd will not unite 
when put into the press. 

When the curd has been placed in the hoop, then put the 
follower (circular board) on and place it in the press. 

Pressing the cheese.— If much cheese is made on the 
farm, one of the regular cheese presses should be pur- 
chased. If only a small amount is made, a homemade press 
will serve the purpose. A press such as is illustrated will 
do the work. An old wagon tongue will serve the purpose 
of the lever. One end may be fastened to the side of a 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 297 



building with a strong set of hinges, or it may be inserted 
under a block of wood fastened to the wall. 

In pressing the cheese in such a press, care should be 
taken to keep the lever level, otherwise the cheese will not 
be regular in shape. 

When the cheese is first put into the press, very little 
pressure should be applied. The weight should be close to 
the cheese. The pressure is gradually increased by moving 
the weight toward the end of the lever. In case the curd 
should be a little cold, greater pressure should be applied 
when the curd is first put into the press. A final pressure 
of about 500 to 800 pounds should be applied to the cheese. 
This does not mean that the weight should be that heavy. 

When the cheese has been in press for one hour, it should 
be turned, and the bandage or lining should be adjusted. If 
the cheese does not unite well, apply a little warm water. 
In another two hours turn the cheese again. The cheese 
should be in press not less than 24 hours. In case the cheeze 
does not unite well in pressing, it may be soaked in warm 
water while still in the bandages, then put back in the press. 

The composition of American Cheddar cheese is as 
follows : 



y 



Water : 34.4 percent 

Gasein 26.4 

Fat 32.7 

Sugar 2.9 " 

Ash 3.6 

Total 100 



r 





FIG. 115 — Illustration of a simple homemade cheese press. 



298 larsen's farm dairying 

Curing the cheese. — So far, the cheese is only half made. 
The curing is a very important part of cheese making. The 
temperature and humidity of the curing room should both 
be under reasonable control. The curing room must not be 



^Mf/^uri :r - - ." :-^^»-S 


IT 


&*>i^ 


*^ 'jpn"^ 1^ 1 1 


It 


■ 1- 


'''*^5 ■'^^■*%:>f*'4P^^^^8i||jp(il^W 


_*.^ ,./- ■■ 



FIG. 11? — A successful farmers' co-operative cheese factory. 

too dry. This will cause the cheese to dry too quickly, and 
to crack. There should not be a draft in the curing room, 
yet there should be ventilation. 

If the curing room is too dry, the floor of the room may 
be sprinkled with water or a wet sheet may be hung up in 
the room. 

If it is desired to have the cheese cure quickly, then the 
temperature may be kept at about 70 degrees. The best 
cheese, however, is obtained from slow curing in a cold 
room. A temperature between 50 and 60 degrees produces 
good results. 

A cellar is probably the best available place for a curing 
room on the farm. 



MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 299 

\\ hen the cheeses are first put in the curing room on the 
farm, they should be turned daily ; and during the ripening 
process, should they become moldy on the surface, the 
cheese and shelving should be washed thoroughly with a 
strong salt brine. 

Making Soft Cheeses on the Farm 

Numerous kinds of soft cheeses can be made successfully 
on the farm, such as cottage, neufchatel, pimento, cream 
and club. These are much easier to make under farm con- 
ditions than the cheddar type above described. 

Cottage cheese. — Either skim milk or buttermilk may 
be used for making cottage cheese. Skim milk is used most. 

The sweet skim milk is brought to a temperature of be- 
tween 70 to 75 degrees. About an ounce (two tablespoon- 
fuls) of good, clean starter (sour milk or buttermilk) is 
added for every gallon of milk, and then stirred well. Then 
add rennet at the rate of one ounce of rennet to each thou- 
sand pounds of milk. The rennet should previously be 
diluted with cold water (half an ounce of rennet to a pint 
of water). 

Set the milk away to curdle, cover it with a clean cloth to 
prevent dust from entering and also to aid in maintaining 
the desired temperature, 70 to 75 degrees. About 12 to 24 
hours will be required to complete the curdling properly. 

When the curd has become reasonably firm, it may be 
broken up by means of gentle stirring. Should the curd be 
too soft to separate from the whey, the temperature may be 
raised to about 85 to 95 degrees. Do not warm too much. 
This will make the curd hard and granular. The cheese 
should remain soft to be most palatable. 

Then remove the cheese to a double cheesecloth, and hang 
it up to drain. Six to eight hours' time will be required for 
this. 

When the loose whey has drained away, add and mix salt 
at the rate of from one to lj<2 ounces to five pounds of curd. 



300 larsen's farm dairying 

Some also add caraway seed to give flavor. Some like rich 
cottage cheese. In that case cream is mixed with it. This 
results in a smoother, richer, and more palatable cottage 
cheese, but more expensive. 

From 15 to 20 pounds of cottage cheese is obtained from 
100 pounds of milk. 

Buttermilk is also used for cottage cheese. In order to 
separate the curd from buttermilk, it is necessary to heat it 
to a temperature of about 120 degrees for about two hours. 
This is necessary on account of the softness and fineness of 
the buttermilk curd. Otherwise, the process of manufacture 
is the same as when sour milk is used. 

This cheese may be marketed in one-pound paper con- 
tainers made for this purpose, or it may be packed into 
glazed earthen jars. During the summer restaurants sell 
and serve considerable cottage cheese. Cottage cheese is 
used for sandwiches, it is eaten directly with cream, salt and 
pepper, and it is used for salads. 

Cottage cheese may also be made in the same manner 
from naturally soured milk without any rennet. In that 
case, it is necessary to warm the milk to about 90 degrees 
to separate the Avhey from the curd. 

Neufchatel cheese. — Fresh, clean, and sweet whole milk 
is tempered to 70 to 72 degrees. To every gallon of milk 
add one-fourth to one-half ounce (one to two tablespoon- 
fuls) of clean, sour buttermilk, or clabbered milk, and stir 
thoroughly. Then add four or five drops of rennet (diluted 
in about one ounce of cold water) to every gallon of milk, 
and stir thoroughly. If rennet tablets (junket tablets) are 
used, figure each tablet being equal in strength to 20 drops 
of rennet. The water in which the vessel of milk is set 
should be from 70 to 72 degrees. Cover the milk with a 
cloth and allow it to stand until the curd has coagulated 
firmly. This will require from 14 to 18 hours. Then care- 
fully transfer the curd to a cotton cloth, using a small 
dipper. As far as possible, avoid breaking up the curd. A 
convenient method for holding the strainer cloth is to fasten 



MILK MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 301 

the cheesecloth across the top of a wash boiler or tub, using 
clothes pins to hold the cloth strainer firmly at the edge. 

Occasionally scrape down the curd to the center of the 
cloth with a case knife. This prevents the drying of the 
curd around the sides. When the curd begins to become 
firm, and most of the whey is drained, the cloth is folded 
together in a tight ball and the draining is continued. 

At intervals unfold the cloth and scrape the dry curd from 
the surface. Salt to suit the taste, or at the rate of two to 
2Y\ ounces to 10 pounds of curd, and the cheese is ready 
to use. 

From 100 pounds of milk 18 to 20 pounds of Neufchatel 
cheese can be made. 

Neufchatel curd may serve as the foundation for several 
other kinds of soft cheeses. 

Pimento cheese. — The curd is handled as described 
above in making Neufchatel cheese. The only difference is 
that the latter is not colored ; while for the pimento cheese, 
cheese color should be added to the milk at the rate of one- 
sixteenth ounce, or about one-half teaspoonful to each 10 
gallons of milk. This will be equal to from six to eight 
drops for each gallon of milk. 

The pimentos (red peppers) are ground fine in a meat 
grinder, and worked into the curd at the rate of one ounce 
of pimento to each pound of curd. A small amount of 
cayenne pepper is also added at the same time. 

Cream cheese. — Cream cheese may be made from cream 
containing from 10 to 12 percent of butter fat in much the 
same way as the Neufchatel curd, by adding and mixing 
well-ripened or sour cream. Add enough of the sour cream 
to the curd to give it the desired creamy consistency. Add 
salt at the rate of one ounce to five pounds of curd, or to 
suit the taste. 

Club cheese. — First remove the rind from well-made and 
well-cured cheddar, or ordinary hard cheese. Slice this 
cheese and run it through a meat grinder. To each pound 
of ground cheddar cheese, add about two ounces of fresh 



302 larsen's farm dairying 

butter. Mix the cheese and butter thoroughly, and then run 
the mixture through the meat grinder to secure a homogene- 
ous mixture. 

The cheese is ready for use immediately. It should be 
packed, in small, air-tight jars or glasses. Club cheese is 
very nutritious and palatable. 

Manner of Disposal Affects Income 

One hundred pounds of four percent milk equals about 
47 quarts. Each quart, when delivered, brings a gross in- 
come of about 8 cents per quart. The 47 quarts, or 100 
pounds, therefore, would amount to $3.76 when sold for 
direct use. The expense of delivering and bottling must be 
considered in this connection. The cost of distribution from 
the farm about equals the cost of production. 

If the 100 pounds of four percent milk were made into 
butter, the following income may be expected : 

4.7 pounds of butter (Tv $0.35 $1.56 

(4 pounds of butter fat plus 1-6 overrun equals 4.7 pounds of 
butter) 

86 pounds of skim milk (a} $0.30 per cwt. .26 

9 pounds of buttermilk @ $0.30 per cwt. .03 

Total income $1.85 

If the 100 pounds of four percent milk were made into 
cheese, the products would bring about the following 
income : 

10 pounds of cheese @ $0.25 $2.50 

90 pounds of whey @ $0.20 per cwt. .18 

Total income $2.68 

Soft cheeses of the various kinds, such as cream, cottage, 
or brick cheese, may be successfully made on the farm. A 
larger yield may be contained than from cheddar, but the 
soft cheese does not keep so well. It demands an immedi- 
ate and steady market. 



lAlILK MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 303 

The foregoing illustrations have been cited to show that 
the manner of marketing milk has an important bearing 
upon the amount of income. 

The making of ice cream and various other kinds of 
cheese and by-products will not be discussed in .this connec- 
tion. For the making of ice cream and for other uses of 
milk and cream, the reader is referred to 'T3airy Tech- 
nology," by Larsen and White. 



APPENDIX 



304 



APPENDIX 



305 



Armsby's requirements for milk production in addition to maintenance: 





Lbs. 


Therms 




True Protein 


Net Energ> 


For 1 pound of milk testing 2.5 percent 


.041 


.19 


For 1 pound of milk testing 3.0 percent 


.043 


.21 


For 1 pound of milk testing 3.5 percent 


.045 


.24 


For 1 pound of milk testing 4.0 percent 


.049 


.27 


For 1 pound of milk testing 4.5 percent 


.052 


.29 


For 1 pound of milk testing 5.0 percent 


.055 


.32 


For 1 pound of mi'k testing 5.5 percent 


.058 


.34 


For 1 pound of milk testing 6.0 percent 


.061 


.36 


For 1 pound of milk testing 6.5 percent 


.064 


.39 


For 1 pound of milk testing 7.0 percent 


.068 


.41 



Armsby's standard for maintenance requirements for cows: 



Live Weight in Pounds 


PIgestible Protein in Pounds 


Therms Net Energy 


750 


.413 


4.95 


850 


.449 


5.38 


950 


.483 


5.80 


1050 


.517 


6.20 


1150 


.548 


6.58 


1250 


.580 


6.96 


1350 


.611 


7.33 


1450 


.641 


7.69 


1550 


.670 


8.03 


1650 


.698 


8.38 



306 



APPENDIX 



The Armsby table of dry matter, digestible protein, and net energy 
values in 100 lbs. of various feeding stufTs: 



FceJing stuffs 

Green fodder and silage: 

Alfalfa.... 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, red 

Corn fodder, green 

Corn, silage 

Hungarian grass 

Rape 

Rye fodder 

Timothy 

Hay and dry coarse fodder: 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay, red 

Soy bean hay 

Cowpea hay 

Corn forage, field-cured 

Corn stover , 

Hungarian hay 

Oat hay 

Timothy hay 

Straws: 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw 

Roots and tubers: 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains: 

Barley 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Oats 

Pea meal 

Rye 

Wheat 

By-products: 

Brewers' grains dried 

Brewers' grains wet 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cottonseed meal 

Distillers' grains dried . . . 

Principally corn 

Principally rye 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal Buffalo 

Gluten meal Chicago 

Linseed meal, old process . . 

J.inseed meal, new process. 

Malt sprouts 

Rye bran 

Sugar beet pulp, fresh 

Sugar beet pulp, dried 

wheat bran 

W'^ipnt r^irlHIitT's 







Therms 


Total dry 


Digestible 


Net energy 


matter 


protein 


value 


Pounds 


Pounds 




28.2 


2.50 


12.45 


19.1 


2.19 


11.30 


29.2 


2,21 


16.17 


20.7 


.41 


12.44 


25.6 


1.21 


16.56 


28.9 


1.33 


14.76 


14.3 


2.16 


11.43 


23.4 


1.44 


11.63 


38.4 


1.04 


19.08 


91.6 


6.93 


34.41 


84.7 


5.41 


34.74 


88.7 


7.68 


38.65 


89.3 


8.57 


42.76 


57.8 


2.13 


30.53 


59.5 


1.80 


26.53 


92.3 


3.00 


44.03 


84.0 


2.59 


36.97 


86.8 


2.05 


33.56 


90.8 


1.09 


21.21 


90.4 


.63 


20.87 


90.4 


.37 


16.56 


11.4 


.37 


7.82 


9.1 


.14 


4.62 


21.1 


.45 


18.05 


11.4 


.88 


8.00 


9.4 


.22 


5.74 


89.1 


8.37 


80.75 


89.1 


6.79 


88.84 


84.9 


4.53 


72.05 


89.0 


8.36 


66.27 


89. S 


16.77 


71.75 


88.4 


8.12 


81.72 


89.5 


8.90 . 


82.63 


92.0 


19.04 


60.01 


24.3 


3.81 


14.82 


88.2 


22.34 


75.92 


91.8 


35.15 


84.20 


93.0 


21.93 


79.23 


93.2 


10.38 


60.93 


91.9 


19.95 


79.32 


91.8 


21.56 


88.80 


90.5 


33.09 


78.49 


90.8 


27.54 


78.92 


90.1 


29.26 


74.67 


89.8 


12.36 


46.33 


88.2 


11.35 


56.65 


10.1 


.63 


7.77 


93.6 


6.80 


60.10 


88.1 


10.21 


48.23 


H.n 


12.79 


77.65 



APPENDIX 



307 



Haecker's feeding standard of requirements for milk production: 



For each 
For each 
For each 
For each 
For each 
For each 
For each 
For each 
For each 



pound of 3.0% milk, 
pound of 3.5% milk, 
pound of 4.0% milk 
pound of 4.5% milk 
pound of 5.C% milk 
pound of 5.5% milk 
pound of 6.0% milk 
pound of 6.5% milk 
pound of 7.0% milk 



Crude Protein 



.042 
.045 
.048 
.051 
.054 
.057 
.060 
.063 
.066 



Carbohydrates 



189 
211 

,233 
,253 
,271 
,289 
,307 
,325 
,341 



Ether Extract 



.0133 
.0149 
.0164 
.0179 
.0191 
.0204 
.0216 
.0229 
.0242 



Haecker's standard of food for maintenance: 



Weight Pounds 


Protein 
Pounds 


Carbohydrates 
Pounds 


Fat 
Pounds 


750 

850 

950 

1050 

1150 


.525 

.595 

.665 

.735 

.80S 

.875 

.945 

1.015 

1.085 

1.154 


5.25 

5.95 

6.65 

7.35 

8.05 

8.75 

9.45 

10.15 

10.85 

11.54 


.08 
.08 
.09 
.10 


1250 

1350 




1450 

1550 

1650 


.'l6 



30^ APPENDI>t 

Haecker's table of nutrients in a pound of feeding stuffs: 





Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 




Concentrates: 

Corn y, 


.079 
.087 
.092 
.102 
.099 
.089 
.078 
.070 
.122 
.129 
.168 
.202 
.204 
.793 
.258 
.372 

.025 
.017 
.024 
.028 
.029 
.048 
.043 
.032 
.024 
.109 
.107 
.068 
.084 
.110 

.010 
.006 
.026 
.012 
.021 
.029 
.027 
.039 
.018 
.032 
.019 

.009 
.006 
.015 
.020 
.027 
.030 

.009 
.011 
.011 
.010 
.010 
.018 
.010 
.015 
.006 

.004 
.012 
.007 


.667 
.656 
.473 
.692 
.676 
.450 
.571 
.•521 
.500 
.401 
.518 
.445 
.507 
.327 
.422 
.169 

.346 
.324 
.321 
.434 
.415 
.469 
.464 
.485 
.299 
.401 
.382 
.358 
.425 
.396 

.116 
.122 
.189 
.191 
.212 
.148 
.131 
.127 
.087 
.110 
.102 

.113 
.149 
.086 
.135 
.087 
.085 

.163 
.102 
.054 
.072 
.081 
.082 
.058 
.081 
.073 

,363 
.386 
.412 


.043 
.016 
.042 
.017 
.011 
.032 
.029 
.031 
.038 
.034 
.007 
.088 
.027 
.070 
.025 
.122 

.012 
.007 
.016 
.014 
.012 
.010 
.015 
.010 
.009 
.015 
.012 
.107 
.015 
.012 

.004 
.004 
.010 
, .006 
.006 
.007 
.006 
.005 
.002 
.005 
.004 

.007 
.002 
.009 
.010 
.013 
.019 

.001 
.001 
.001 
.002 
.002 
.004 
.003 
.002 
.000 

.004 
.008 
006 




Barley 








Wheat ■ 




Rye 




Millet 




Kaffir corn .... 








Shorts 




Bran 




Peas 




Corn oil neal 








Oil meal 




Gluten meal . . . 








Roughage, cured: 

Fodder corn 








Sorghum 




Timothy 








Red top 

Oat hay 




Millet 




Marsh hay . . 








Cow pea 




Clover - 




Alsike 

Alfalfa 

Roughage, green: 




Sorghum 




Oats 




Red top 

Clover 




Alsike 

Alfalfa 




Soy bean . . 




Barley 

Silage: 

Corn 












Clover. ... 








Alfalfa 

Miscellaneous: 








Mangel . 








Rutabaga 




Cabbage 








Rape 




Beet pulp 




Straw 

Wheat 




Oats 




Barley 


_^ 



APPENDIX 
♦ORGANIC AND MINERAL ANALYSES OF FOODS- 



309 



Description 



Wheat 

Wheat flour 

White bread 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat germ . 

W'heat gluten 

Red dog flour 

Corn 

Corn meal, bolted 

Corn bran 

Pearl hominy 

Gluten feed 

Distiller's grains, corn. 
Distiller's grains, rye. . 

Brewer's grains 

Malt sprouts 

Oats 

Kaffir corn 

Rice 

Rice Polish 

Apple 

Prune, dried 

Banana 

Date, dried 

Onion 

Cabbage 

Potato, sweet 

Potato, white 

Mangel-wurzel 

Beet pulp, dried 

Clover hay 

Soy bean hay 

Cowpea hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Timothy hay 

Millet hay 

Corn stover 

Bluegrass hay 

Wheat straw 

Agar agar, dried 

Soy beans 

Navy beans 

Cowpeas 

Peanuts, roasted , 

Linseed oilmeal 

Cottonseed meal 

Milk, skim 

Whey 

Mutton 



Tankage, digester. . . , 
"Banner" bone flour. 

Blood, swine 

"Black" albumen . . . 



^. 



12.31 

13.92 

34.62 

10.02 

11.02 

8. SO 

8.42 

10.52 

14.24 

13.52 

11.00 

11.90 

7.99 

7.71 

8.33 

6.88 

7.46 

8.89 

11.89 

10.15 

11.13 

85.25 

24.53 

72.63 

15.44 

87.29 

93.05 

73.34 

82.42 

88.54 

9.53 

7.57 

10.61 

10.62 

7.42 

8.06 

4.89 

6.96 

8.21 

5.48 

15.29 

8.63 

14.49 

14.24 

2.71 

10.34 

8.58 

90.41 

93.96 

61.67 

73.22 

9.06 



78.82 
10.76 






10.31 

9.74 

9.22 

15.75 

18.84 

29.44 

80.88 

18.50 

8.69 

8.52 

5.25 

6.88 

27.50 

32.06 

29.25 

19.69 

24.75 

10.88 

10.56 

6.48 

12.48 

.24 

2.78 

1.13 

2.26 

1.64 

1.16 

1.28 

1.97 

1.68 

8.25 

13.00 

17.09 

22.25 

14.41 

5.34 

6.00 

5.48 

9.10 

1.75 

1.88 

39.41 

22.23 

22.14 

27.41 

35.51 

35.88 

3.21 

.79 

17.18 

12.93 

58.59 

20.69 
82.13 



69.59 
74.67 
53.58 
55.30 
54.94 
44.37 
9.15 
58.20 
69.11 
72.96 
66.26 
78.77 
48.86 
37.52 
36.93 
50.18 
45.43 
60.09 
70.91 
82.26 
54.29 
13.52 
66.67 
24.79 
77.44 
9.41 
4.80 
23.35 
14.57 
7.69 
59.29 
40.74 
36.57 
33.64 
40.44 
48.13 
47.56 
46.88 
40.97 
45.13 
77.34 
22.54 
53.13 
52.94 
17.32 
30.91 
30.27 
5.52 
4.69 



1.54 

1.25 

1.19 

4.26 

5.11 

10.07 

.65 

5.87 

4.03 

3.27 

3.10 

1.46 

3.64 

8.90 

6.76 

5.74 

2.10 

4.28 

3.58 

.36 

11.77 

.10 

1.26 

.36 

.91 

.33 

.25 

.39 

.09 

.11 

.77 

3.06 

2.47 

3.03 

1.87 

2.29 

2.89 

1.39 

2.89 

1.71 

.37 

19.27 

1.77 

1.33 

47.95 

6.24 

11.14 

.18 

.01 

21.26 

n.21 

9.29 

■ ■ '.27 
1.02 



2.82 

.25 

.28 

8.62 

5.9/ 

2.91 

.19 

3.19 

2.72 

1.04 

13.21 

.46 

8.83 

12.43 

15.34 

14.76 

14.46 

12.48 

1.88 

.47 

3.20 

.63 

1.61 

.29 

2.32 

.79 

.31 

.80 

.29 

.80 

19.25 

28.87 

25.59 

19.70 

29.48 

32.98 

33.06 

32.77 

34.01 

42.48 

.89 

5.09 

4.60 

5.66 

2.14 

11.20 

7.15 



4.36 



NOTE: The high protein contents of soy bean hay and cowpea hay as above re- 
ported_ are due in part to the facts that these samples were a little less advanced in 
maturity than as usually cut for hay and were dried inthelaboratory without loss of parts. 



310 APPENDIX 

CEREAL PRODUCTS— PARTS PER 100 OF FRESH SUBSTANCE 



< 


S 

3 



£ 

3 

1 
C/3 


3 

o 


c 


3 
"3 





3 

a 


JS 


\/A 


.52J 


.031 


.050 


.130 


.198 


.0c4 


.373 


.165 


.050 


.110 


.019 


.016 


.145 


.070 


.088 


1.11 


.102 


.381 


.025 


.003 


.129 


.626 


.088 


(.06 


1.320 


.201 


.125 


.531 


.267 


.090 


1.110 


4.12 


1.021 


.165 


.096 


.383 


.234 


.025 


.876 


4.71 


.296 


.721 


.071- 


.340 


.325 


.070 


1.050 


.71 


.007 


.028 


.078 


.045 


.920 


.050 


.200 


3.72 


.380 


.660 


.120 


.290 


.260 


.140 


.830 


1.21 


.340 


.026 


.012 


.108 


.147 


.063 


.260 


.69 


.166 


.098 


.013 


.106 


.106 


.061 


.229 


1.18 


.365 


.000 


.027 


.078 


.110 


.046 


.139 


.53 


.135 


.000 


.004 


.032 


.160 


.046 


.098 


3.18 


.250 


.424 


.247 


.220 


.585 


.090 


.542 


1.38 


.013 


.142 


.043 


.050 


.470 


.060 


.290 


3.39 


.041 


.071 


.130 


.179 


.374 


.026 


.420 


2.75 


.172 


.259 


.157 


.160 


.390 


.058 


.468 


5.70 


.2')3 


1.350 


.147 


.180 


.800 


.360 


.690 


3.38 


.419 


.168 


.102 


.118 


.195 


.070 


.395 


1.18 


.254 


.058 


.012 


.125 


.164 


.104 


.239 


.28 


.036 


.029 


.008 


.025 


.102 


.036 


.093 


7.13 


1.137 


.110 


.027 


.659 


.168 


.134 


1.497 


.27 


.118 


.010 


.004 


.005 


.006 


.005 


.009 


2.15 


1.017 


.034 


.057 


.042 


.050 


.038 


.083 


.80 


.353 


.066 


.010 


.035 


.006 


.115 


.033 


1.62 


.564 


.097 


.071 


.073 


.074 


.241 


.065 


.55 


.183 


.012 


.033 


.017 


.076 


.023 


.041 


.50 


.173 


.002 


.041 


.015 


.063 


.017 


.018 


.84 


.322 


.016 


.022 


.057 


.031 


.018 


.050 


.67 


.272 


.031 


.005 


.058 


.025 


.010 


.047 


1.18 


.444 


.082 


.015 


.041 


.026 


.158 


.030 


2.91 


.314 


.167 


.660 


.256 


.125 


.043 


.062 


6.76 


1.701 


.062 


1.142 


.270 


.176 


.239 


.169 


7.67 


1.586 


.130 


1.232 


.619 


.231 


.075 


.212 


10.76 


.780 


.646 


1.814 


.980 


.315 


.149 


.253 


6.38 


.770 


.453 


1.046 


.370 


.276 


.149 


.221 


3.20 


.564 


.317 


.177 


.102 


.149 


.183 


.113 


5.60 


1.273 


.094 


.310 


.249 


.151 


.117 


.165 


6.52 


1.718 


.061 


.472 


.086 


.174 


.287 


.095 


4.82 


1.290 


.129 


.308 


.220 


.307 


.215 


.222 


3.45 


.796 


.224 


.205 


.060 


.150 


.198 


.036 


4.23 


.112 


.114 


.660 


.483 


1.770 


.034 


.020 


5.06 


1.913 


.343 


.210 


.223 


.406 


.024 


.592 


3.78 


1.186 


.074 


.201 


.176 


.192 


.040 


.367 


3.69 


1.403 


.162 


.100 


.208 


.240 


.040 


.456 


2.47 


.059 


.548 


.066 


.175 


.247 


.023 


.388 


5.80 


1.098 


.253 


.362 


.488 


.408 


.085 


.70S 


6.98 


1.656 


.259 


.266 


.548 


.490 


.038 


1.352 


.69 


.122 


.047 


.128 


.014 


.034 


.091 


.094 


.56 


.167 


.028 


.044 


.008 


.008 


.118 


.039 


.92 


.239 


.082 


.002 


.024 


.233 


.090 


.182 


.93 


.055 


.104 


.067 


.016 


.204 


.166 


.229 


15.51 


.547 


1.664 


2.948 


.145 


.608 


2.444 


1.627 




.065 


.091 


23.990 


1.160 






14.940 


■ I'.OO 


.220 


.290 


.007 


.006 


"A37 


".ISO 


.059 


4.14 


.240 


1.247 


.035 


.010 


.730 


1.380 


.109 



"^IJuIletin 255. Ohio Experiment Station. 



INDEX 



A'Jvanc3d registry requirements. 
Ancestors, effect of on production 

and type 109. 

rna'.ernal 

Armsby's table, digestible pro- 
tein and net en'r. y 

dry matter 

requirements for production 

end maintenance 

As oc ations, bull, number in 

United States 125, 

CO V testing, number in 

. United States 95, 

Ayrshire cattle 

rd Iress of breed secretary.. 

champion cow 

description of 

number registered in Unitvl 
States 



B 



Page Page 



JUitter, coloring of 2S0 

composition 280 

making of on farm and 

creamery 273. 287 

racking and marketing 2S4 

salting 282 

. washing 281 

working 283 



101 

115 
130 

303 
30J 

305 

127 

9^ 
41 
43 
43 
41 

43 



cow 



R' ct-ria in milk . . . 
Blood, circulation of, 
Breeds, Ayrshire 

Brown Swisj 

com-'osi':i n of milk from 
different 

dairy cattle 34, 3S, 

development of 

Devon 

Dexter 

Dutch Belted 

effect of environments on.. 

French-Canadian 

Guernsy 

Ho^sten-Friesian 

Jersey 

Kerry 

less common dairy 

number registered in United 
States 

Red Po!l 

Shorthorn 

summary of leading dairy... 
Brown Swiss cattle 

rddre s of breed secr:?t2ry. . 

chr mpion cow 

description of 

number registered in Unite I 

States 

Bull associations, number in 

States 125, 

Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy milker 



Calfw2y milk machine 257 

Calves, amount of milk to feed to 142 

birth weight of 153 

changing to skim milk 145 

cost of raising 145 

effect of surroundings of 

mother on 135 

fe^d and care during pre-natal 

period 134 

fe^d and care from time of 

birth 133 

feeders 149 

measuring growth 143 

milk substitutes, calf meals, 

etc. 147 

place in which to keep 140 

scours, remedy for 151 

white and common 150 

stanchions for, during fesd- 

ing 141 

teaching to eat grain 141 

value of 65 

Cattle, number of different breeds 

re^istared in U. S 43 

Cheese, making of, on the farm 291 

cottage 299 

srft 293 

Churning, difficult 285 

fresh cream for 278 

temperature 277 

Club cheese, making of 301 

Coagulating milk for cheese.... 294 

Coloring butter 280 

Composite samples of milk 93 

Composition of average butter.. 280 

average normal milk 

corn in different growing 

55 stages 

5 1 feeds 

milk from different breeds.. 
43 milk — whole, skimmed and 

whey 146 

127 Cf)nstitution of dairy cow 30 

236 Coding milk, importance of 239 

311 



2fi6 
23 
41 

54 

53 

40 
35 

59 
61 
53 
35 
61 
4t 
4"> 
45 
61 
5] 

43 
5'( 
59 
52 
51 
5i 



234 

188 

157 

53 



312 



INDEX 



Page 

Cost, calculating, of ration for 

diiry cow 214 

milk production 64 

by different authorities 74, 79 

outline of study 80 

operating milking machine 

vs. hand milking 240 

raising a dairy heifer 145 

Cows, amount of manure from.. 13 

basic rations for 210 

beef value after dairy useful- 
ness 19, 71 

breaking to milking machine 241 

t-reeds of 34 

breeding crate 124 

brings sure and quick returns 9 
calculating co:,t of raton fr 214 
calculation of balanced raton 165 
care of, during freshening 

137, 233 

c-re of teats 220 

condition of, affecting ric - 

ness of milk 2 1 

constitution of 2T 

culling of poor 102 

desirable form of 20 

determining production of. . 81 
diagram, naming parts of. . 34 
difference in, for machine 

milking 241 

effect of good feed and care 104 
effect of size on production 155 
effect of surroundings of, on 

calf 135 

factors affecting size of 153 

factors governing value of . . 62 
fall freshening most profit- 
able 70. 106 

feed and care during gesta- 
tion period . .' 134 

feeding for maximum pro- 
duction 216 

fitting mi'king machine to.. 251 

function of feeds for 161 

general expenses in keeping 73 

general form of 31 

handling of kicking and 

sucking 229 

im'^ortance of c'ean and 

healthy 219 

increasing production of . . . . 102 
interest and depreciation.... 72 

judging of dairy 20 

large producers most profit- 
able .64, 67 

lengthening of milk period.. 231 

mashes for 179 

medium for marketing field 

crops 2, 63 

milk fever and treatment... 232 

milking of 2U 

minerals in, ration for 15^ 

number of in United Statej 1 

order of feeding 211 

pasture classes for 171 



Page 

Cows, poise of 29 

profitable usersi of field crops 

2, 21, 24 
profits from power of re- 
production 18 

rurchase of good dairy 108 

raising a good dairy cow. . . 134 
record of each cow in herd 

64, 79, 84 
relation of form to function 

21, 81 

release of milk by 243 

resting period of 230 

retain ani increase pro- 

tion of land 12 

roots for dairy l77 

salt in ration 159 

fcore card for judging 32 

select and breed for milking 

machine 248 

selection of 19 

silage for 180 

soiling crops for 171 

structure of udder 218 

succulent feed for 171 

testing associations and num- 
ber in United Statej . .95, 99 
uses rough land profitably. . 11 

utilizing labor 'i 

variety of feeds for 211 

water for, and functions of 

water for 199 

weighing and testing milk 

from each 84 

Crate, breeding 12 4 

Cream cheese, making of 301 

Cream, I'uying stations of 289 

direct shipment of 290 

freshness of, for butter im- 
portant 278 

richness of to skim, and 

factors affecting 27^1 

Creamery, local 2S7 

Crops, doubled in Denmark by 

dairy farming 15 

percent recovered by cow, hog 

and st<^er 4, 5, n 

soiling, for sows 1" 1 

Curing cheese 298 

Cutting the curd 294 

D 

Dairy cow (see Cows) 'ZO 

Dairy products, amount and value 

of in United States 1 

diTCstibility of 4 

Dairyi^'g, reduces expense of m r- 

keting field cror>s ] 1 

v/inter most profitable . .70, 101 

Devon cattle 59 

addre s of breed secretary.. 61 

descrintion of 56 

Dexter cnttle 61 

address of breed secretary.. 61 



INDEX 



313 



Page 
Dexter cattle, number reri terel 

in United States 43 

Difficult churning 285 

Disbrow milking machine 262 

Dutch Belted cattle 56 

"address of breed secretary... 56 

description of 56 

number registered in United 
States 43 

E 

Empire milking machine 258 

Escutcheon 28 

F 

leeding. amount r.n.l (iuality of 

milk for crivc-. 142 

amount of concentrates 208 

amount of roughage 206 

Ijasic rations 210 

for maximum production.... 216 

mashes ■...'...: 179 

order of 211 

pasture grasses 171 

roots 177 

silage 180. 192 

standards of 163. 170 

variety of 211 

Fertilizers, artificial, amount u.^e.l 

in United States 14 

French-Canadian catLle 61 

rddress of bre^l secretary.. 61 
number registered in United 
States 43 

G 

Guernsey cattle 44 

address of bree 1 secretary.. 4'6 

champion cow 45 

description of ,. . . 44 

number registered in United 

States 44 

II 

Haecker's table, requirements for 
milk, production and main- 
tenance 307 

of nu+rients in a pound of 

feeding stuff 308 

Hand milking 233 

Heating fie curd for cheese.... 291 
Herd, dairy, improvement of by 

ue of sire 109 

hereditary, a factor in build- 
ing 115 

Tceep sire separate from 120 

Herelitary, a factor in building 

the herd ]15 

Hinman milking machine 2il 

Hols'^e'n-Fries'an cattle 4'^ 

address of breed secrfctuiy.. 51 



Page 

IIolstein-Frierian, champion cow 51 

description of AA 

number registered in the 
United States 43 

I 

Ice on the dairy farm 270 

Inbreeding, effect of 119 

J 

Jersey cattle 46 

address of bre?d s?cretary... 48 

champion cow 48 

description of 4b 

number registered in the 

United States 43 

K 

Kerry cattle 61 

address of breed secretary. . . 61 
number registered in the 

United States 43 

L 

Labor, utilization of 7 

Lactation, when to start milking 

machine 244 

M 

Machine milking, breaking cows 

to 241 

chief parts of milking ma- 
chine 238 

control of temperature sur- 
roundings 252 

cost of operating 240 

depending on manner of re- 
leasing milk 243 

difference in cows 241 

imporatnce of cow giving 
down milk , . . . 251 

keep sanitary 253 

machine milking and ab- 
normal milking 254 

milk elaboration and opera- 
tor 241, 249 

relation to cow 251 

select and breed right cows 
■for 248 

stage of lactation period for 
starting » 244 

symmetrical and well shaped 

udders for 247 

Management, effect of good herd 106 
Manure, amount produced by cow 13 

composition of from farm 
animals 13 

value of 66 

vrlue of, for farm products 12 
I.IarkcLing butter 284 



314 



INDEX 



Page 
MarketLng butter, methods of 

affecting income 302 

Mashes for dairy cows 179 

Mehring milking machine 262 

Milk, amount of and quality of 

for calves 142 

average composition of 254 

bacteria 266 

composite samples of........ 90 

composition of, from different 

breeds 53 

composition of, whole, 

skimmed and whey 146 

condition of cow affecting 

richness of 231 

experiments at Oregon Sta- 
tion 27 

factors affecting richness of 264 
fever, treatment and preven- 
tion 232 

for butter 273 

for cheese 291 

handling and marketing.... 264 
handling of, for dairy prod- 
ucts / 273 

importance of cooling and 

aerating 269 

production, cost of 64 

production, cost of by dif- 

(ferent authorities 74, 79 

production, cost of by outline 

of study 80 

secretion, operator and milk- 
ing machines 241, 249 

skimmed for calves ........ 145 

substitutes for 147 

table for records 85, 89 

testing by Babcock method . . 94 

veins 26 

weighing and testing from 

each cow 84 

Milking 218 

completeness of 227 

dry hand vs. wet hand 227 

Hegelund method of 265 

in sanitary utensils 227 

machines, kinds of 238, 255 

manner of, affecting richness 265 

manner of, procedure 226 

methods of 236 

period, lengthening of 231 

Minerals, in cow's ration 158 

in foods 309 



N 



Neufchatel cheese, making of . . . . 300 



Organic and mineral analysis of 

foods 309, 310 



Page 
P 

Packing butter 284 

Pasture grasses for cows 171 

Pedigree, extended and tabulated 129 

value of 126 

Perfection milking machine 259 

Pimento cheese, making of 301 

Pressing cheese 295 

Production, effect of ancestors 

109, 115 

form of cow indicating. . .21, 81 

increasing cf dairy herd.... 102 



Q 



Quality, importance of for ajl 

poses 263, 272 



Records, keeping for each cow 

64, 79. 84 

tables for 86, 89 

value of dairy herd 99 

Red Poll cattle 57 

'address of breed secretary... 57 

ehampion cov 58 

description of 57 

number registered in United 

States 43 

Rennet, coagulate milk with.... 291 

Roots for d:;iry cows 177 

S 

Salt for dairy cows 153 

Salting Hitter 282 

Sanitary condition of milking 

machine 253 

Score card 32 

Scours in calves, white and com- 
mon 150 

Separator, condition of 277 

Sharpies mi'king machine 259 

Shorthorn cat*'<=? 59 

address of br^ed secretary... 61 
address cf dairy Shorthorn 

cattle club 61 

description of 59 

number r^er^'stered in the 

United States 43 

Silage, advantage of 180 

composition of corn for 188 

fermentation of 190 

frozen 195 

harvesting 183 

sealing 189 

Silos, kinds of 195 

table showinf? capacity of . . . 198 

Sire, function of good dairy.... 1 ^ '7 

Vp.ndling of cross 122 

keep separate from herd.... 120 



INDEX 



315 



Page 

Sire, use of good 109 

value of good dairy 114 

Soiling crops yield and methods 

of feeding 174 

.atiitics, amount and value in 

United States 1 

T 

J able, digestible protein and net 

energy 306 

dry matter 303 

nutrients in a pound of feed- 
ing stuff 308 

organic and mineral analysis 

of foods 309, 310 

requirements of milk pro- 
duction and maintenance. . 307 
requirements for maintenance 

and production 305 

Temperature, for churning cream 279 

Testing, association 95 

Testing associations, number of 

each in United States 99 

milk by Babcock method..,. 94 



Page 

u 

Udder, capacity and quality of. . 24 

structure of 218 

treatment of swollen 224 

well shaped for machine 

milking 247 

Universal milking machine 262 

Utensils, clean and sanitary 227 

V 

Value, economic and testhetie of 

cow 62 

of good dairy sire 114 

of pedigree 126 

W 

Water for daii-y cows...'. 199 

warming for dairy herd 204 

Waterloo Boy milking machine.. 260 

Washing of butter 281 

Weight, calves of different breeds 

at birth 153 

Winter dairying 70, 106 

Woi-king of butter 283 



